zkouška - otázky

Introduction

- 30 000 years ago – physiological change of our ancestor ´s larynx;
- human cannot swallow and breath at the same time (he would choke);
- our chords could developed and produce sounds;
- 1/3 of human race communicate in languages that belong to the Indo-European group of
languages;
- 1. Indo-Europeans (7 000-6 000 BC) must have lived somewhere where climate was harsh;
- Indo-European languages have for ex. one word for „snow“ (Schnee, sníh, snow), but no
common word for „sea“;
- these languages were developed to the north of the Black sea;
- 3 000-2 500 BC – 2 inventions → horse was domesticated;
→ the wheel was found;
- the hunter-gatherer manager to gather more than necessary to survive;
- thanks to horses, people started splitting to settle, looping for other soil, they could get far
away from the place they originally lived;
- languages started to differ thanks to migration;
- the original Indo-European languages started to change → west – our and English culture;
→ east – India;
- groups of people settled and have never met each other ever;
- culture started changing;
- 1. group of people landing on British Isles, were the Celts;
- Gaelic – is spoken up to now in Wales, Cornwall, Scotland and Brittany;
(French onion seller coming from Brittany to Wales, could communicate with the Welsh –
common languages → linguistic phenomenon);
- Celts lived on Isles undisturbed till 55 BC, Julius Caesar landed on the Isles (the Romans
stayed there until 410 AD);
- English is a result of many invasions, it is a mixture of the western branch of the
Indo-European family;
- linguistic mixture of English;

ex. names of places with the ending –chester (Latin origin) – it means „caestra“ – a
military camp;

Stratford-upon-Avon (strad – Latin – „strada“– street)
ford – česky „brod“
Avon – voda, řeka – Celtic
- this linguistic branch is called toponomastics;
- 55 BC – 410AD – military, administrative – Romans;
- in the north was build the Hadrian’s Wall;
- 2 languages on the territory of England – Latin, Gaelic;
- 410 AD – Romans left the Isles – land of rich soil, climate for agriculture, minerals and no
army – it could not defend itself;
- 449 AD – tribes from the northern Europe were looking for new loot;
→ 1. generation of barber tribes;
- Angles – settled in the southern part of East Anglia;
- they came from the contemporary territory of Germany (Schleswig-Holstein) – in
those times called Anglia;
- Saxons – came from „Nieder-Sachsen“ (Low Saxony) – bordering with the Netherlands;
- landed and settled in southern England to the west;

- Jutes – they came from Danish Jutland – western part (peninsula) of Denmark;
- they settled in Kent, in the southern England to the east of Sussex and Wessex;

- these three brought over different languages to the Gaelic;
- they did not influenced Gaelic much, because the Celts who did not escape to the mountains
of Wales or Scotland were Miller and there was no one to influence;
- on the other hand Romans coexisted with the Celts → Latin words in English;
- English is originated in Germany and Denmark – mixture – Englisc – was spoken until
1066;
- after these tribes, the Vikings controlled the Isles- the language common to Englisc;
- 1066 – Norman French was brought over;
- Englisc changed – church, terminology, army, administrative → French;
- people of English origin were not Miller, but became servant to the French;
they took care of the animals → names for them are Germanic;
French cooks cooked meals for Nobles → names for meals are French;

ex. cow × beef
sheep × mutton
- English is Anglo-Saxon language, 38% of Romanic origin;
- Germanic one syllable words are closer to the heart of native English man (W.Churchil – „I
cannot offer you nothing but blood, sweat, toil and tears – slovo „toil“ bylo později
vypuštěno);

ex. sweat × perspiration
tears × lamentation
child × infant
- we can say that the Germanic Romanized the Germanic (francouzští normané byli stejně
germáni jako germáni na Ostrovech, ale Normané mluví románským jazykem);
- Normans enslaved the original population, they got it under control;
- why French did not replaced Englisc – because women bear children – the settled soldiers
started cohabitating with female local population – mothers talked to they children in Englisc
(mother tongue), to the French lords they spoke French, but when a French lord wanted to
speak with her he had to speak Englisc;
Vowel development from the state of Indo-European period to the probable system for Proto-Germanic period

- system of vowels which is believed to be a state for Indo-European period;


short vowels long vowels


- šva primum – originated by the reduction of long vowels;
- šva secundum – originated by the reduction of short vowels;

- in the Proto-Germanic period were annulled both reduced vowels:
merged with /a/ sound;
merged with /u/ sound;

- the most significant change was the fusion (merger) of short /o/, /a/ → pg. /a/;
+ fusion of Indo-European (ide.) /o/,/a/ in pg. /o/;
ide → pg.
Examples of these shifts:
Ide. o → (changed) pg./a/; lat. hostis → gót. gasts;
Ide → pg. /a/; lat. pater → gót. fadar;
Ide → pg. /u/; čes. plný → göt. fulls;
Ide a → pg. o; lat. mater – sta. modor;
- by these vowels were in the ide already 6 diphthongs with the first short part: ai, ei, oi, au,
eu, ou;
- + 6 vowels with the first long part: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou → these 6 have merged with the first
6 ones;
Further changes
Ide ou → pg. au
Ide ei → pg. i
Ide oi → pg ai
Examples:
Ide ei → i Greek word steicho (jdu) = sta. sti an (steigen);
Ide oi → pg. ai lat. oinos (únus) – gót. áins (jeden)
Ide ou → pg. au lat. rúfu – gót. rámps (ruopi
- zdánlivě nebylo v pg. vůbec krátké /o/. Avšak pg si vytvořila nové krátké /o/ a sice změnou
původního /u/.
- to the change /u/ → /o/ has come, if /u/ was not followed in the next syllable in original ide.
by the group of nasal + consonant or by a phone of the high positron (i, w, j)→ protective
group;
ex. ebunden
eholfen
- in the system of long vowels stayed after these all changes a vacant place /á/ (ide. /á/ → pg.
/ó/);
- soon after that has come to so called alternative lengthen;

ide. anx → pg. áx (long /a/ was developed, but nasal was lost);
- important are 2 changes, to those is in pg. vowel /e/ subordinated, which changes in certain
situations to /i/;
- it is: 1) if the stem vowel is followed by the group of nasal + another consonant (ex. lat.
ventus → sta. wind) → breaking;
2) if /e/ stands before /i/, /í/ or /j/ in the following syllable;
(Greek esti → sta. is) → i Umlaut (Palatal umlaut);
- in these both changes is /e/;
- i Umlaut stands in general for vowels (it shifts them forward and upward);
State of Proto-Germanic vocalism (before the development of the old English language from the Germanic one)

short vowels long vowels

diphthongs


- important combinatorial change;
- back vowels change into front vowels under the influence of the short or long /i/ or /j/
standing in the next syllable;
- this /i/ or /j/ usually disappeared in that time, from which we have no written relics;

- these vowels are subordinated to i Umlaut:
a) short and long: /a/, /o/, /u/, /ć/
b) diphthongs: /ío/, /éo/, /éa/;
a → e sta. mann, pl. menn (z pg manniz) manniz → mennz
ć → e sta betra, gót. batiza - rotacismus (když je /z/ mezi samohláskami vzniká /r/) +
metateze;
o → e sta. dohtor, má dativ dehter (z dotfri) → daughter;
u → j sta full tvoří sloveso
fyllan (z fuljan) – melodický přízvuk se mění v dynamický – koncovka se redukuje;
The influence of the palatal consonants on the following vowels
- sta. had velar /k/ and in addition to also palatal /k/ (written as /c/);
- similarly there was velar /g/ pronounced γ , and in sta. also palatal j ;
Palatalization of vowels

e → ie sth (starohornoněmcké) geban; sta. iefen
ć → ea lat. castra; sta. ceaster
ć → ea sta. gear ; gót. jer, něm. yahr
Palatal umlaut of long vowels (I umlaut)

o → e sta. fot (noha ) pl. fet ← fotiz
u → y sta mus pl. mys ← musiz
lys ← lusiz

Palatal umlaut of short vowels
eo → ie sta. ic weorpe (něm. ich werde)
má 2 osobu pu wierst (vlivem /i/ v původní příponě –izi);
The development of consonants from ide. to sta.
voiceless voiceless aspirated voiced voiced aspirated
labials p p b b
dentals t t d d
palatals k k g g
velars k k g g
labiovelars k k g g


+ 2 nasals /m/, /n/, 2 liquids /l/, /r/, 2 polohlásky /i/, /u/ and 1 spirant /j/.

- the most important is the development of three lines of explosives k-ových:

k´- palatal /k/
k - velar /k/
k - labiovelar /k/

- in ide. there were 2 different groups of dialects:

1) In the first one merged explosives velar k and k, palatals remained separated k and
changed into sibilants (sentum group)

- sentum languages – Slavonic, Baltic, Indo-Iranian languages;

2) In the second group on the contrary merged palatals and velars (k and k), whereas
labiovelars k remained separate. (kentum group)

- kentum group – Germanic, Italic-Celtic languages, Latin, Greek;


- in ide – k mtom (sto
- in latin centum (kentum) × old Iranian sat m;

- ide vowel system came to the pg. system with great changes;
- the 2 most important complexes of changes:

The first sound shifting – Grimm’s Law (concerns English);

The second sound shifting – Werner´s law (concerns German)
- p, t, k → pf, ts, k ;
Grimm’s Law
p → p
b → bh
th
t → t
d → dh
dh
k → k
g → gh
gh
k → k
g → g h
g h
f
p
b
ţ
t
d
x
k
xw
kw

Werner’s Law
- f → ţ, ţ → đ, x → з, xw → зw, s → z;
Example: “sto”
ide. k∂ntom, in the era of pg., the first form xumţam → xunţam (assimilation mţ → nţ) →
xunđan → hund (pg. đ → sta. d)`;
Last two important changes of consonants (ide.→ pg. → sta.)
1) In the West Germanic area:

/z/ in the middle of the word, between two vowels → /r/;
at the end of the word it disappears;
→ this phenomenon is called rotacism;
2) Development of pg. з (g)

- in sta. was - at the beginning of the word – velar з [ ], or palatal [j], according to the
next vowel;
- velar з / / was before the vowels /a/, /o/, /u/;
- palatal /j/ - before original /ae/, /e/, /i/;
- at the end of the word з is articulated palatalized, if it stands after palatal vowel: daeз, weз
/j/;
- if after з (velar spirant) stands velar vowel → stiзan/ fluзon / / -čte se jako /g/;
MORFOLOGY
Declension
Conjugation
Comparison
→ Inflexion (ohýbání, flexe)
- flexion in ide. – there were no precise declension models (paradigms) with precise number
of grammatical cases, but there were certain declension types;

Noun paradigms in ide.

- there are 2 groups divided according to the approach of flexing endings;

direct to the stem
to the stem which is extended with so called stem suffix = theme

- there is flexion: athematic
thematic

Thematic flexion → vowel thematic flexion
→ consonant thematic flexion
- example: vowel thematic flexion : homo (ger. hom – im - is)
↓
theme

consonant thematic flexion: mod – o – s

- in ide. 7 cases + ablative (probably not at all types);
- ablative – the case which expresses starting point of action wherefrom, when, where);
- sta. has first 4. cases (sporadic rests of instrumental);
- number in ide. was of three kinds (Sg., Pl., dual);
- in Germanic languages (including sta.) occurs dual only in the case of personal pronouns
(1.and 2. person);


Sta paradigms

- vowel stems sta. of declension of nouns are:
a - stems, o – stems, i – stems, u – stems
Thematic declension
1) vowel stems = strong declension
a) A – stems (masculine, neuters);
- masculine paradigms 3: stán, dćз, ćcer (ečr) - pole

Sg.
Pl.
N. stán
stánas
G. stánes
stána
D. stáne
stánum
A. stán
stánas


Sg.
Pl.
N. daeз
daзgas /dagas/
G. daeзes
daзa
D. daeзe
daзum
A. daeз
daзas
Sg.
Pl.
N. aecer
aecres/ekres/
G. aecres
aecra
D. aecre
aecrum
A. aecer
aecras
Consonant stems
- N stems (weak declension) – all genders are put in here;
- n stems masculine (sta. зuma – člověk)
sg. зuma pl. зuman
зuman зumena
зuman зumum (from this form we cannot decide wheatear it is weak or strong noun)
зuman зuman
- words purely of the Germanic origin English: children, oxen, brethren;
* strong declension (vowel declension);
Athematic declension
sg. fot pl. fet
fotes fota
fet fotum
fot fet



Declension and escalation of adjectives

- declension – in ide. after the same paradigm as declension of substantives;
- in pg., except of the original flexion of adjectives identical with the flexion of
substantive vowel paradigms, there exist also adjective flexion identical with
the flexion of the N stems;

(in lat. adjectives → nick names → names)
rufus (ryšavý) → Rufo (zrzek)
- weak form are mainly used after demonstratives and possessive pronouns;
(ex. se goda faeder, mines eoldan freonden)
Escalation of adjectives
- comparative – in ide. – is build with suffixes –os, -ies, is;
- in germ. it is suffix –iz (ide. –is) or - óz (in ide. –ios), after which where
approached endings of the weak declension;

ide. positive lang – az
comparative lanз – izó
in sta. lang – lengra
- there are some adjectives, where there is no comparative in translation;

earm (chuddy) – earmra (from suffix –óz);
Superlative
- in germ. was fixed the development of superlative so, that to comparative suffix –iz
approached the next suffix –ta, so the result was –ista;
ex. héah → híehra → hiehsta (vysoký)
earm → earmra → earmsta
Irregular escalation of adjectives
gód → bettra → betsta
yfel → wiersá → wiersta (špatný)
?? why it is in English like that? er → est (longer, longest) in escalation of adjectives?
- in the 2. step comes to rotacism;
Personal Pronouns
1st person Sg. Dual Pl.
N ic mit wé
G mín uncer user, úre
D mé unc ús
A mec, mé uncit, unc úsic, ús
2nd person N ţú зit зé
G ţín incer eowé, íower
D ţé ine éow, íow
A ţec, ţe incit, inc éowie, éow, iow

Mask. Neut. Fem.(Sg.) Mask. Neut. Fem.(Pl.)
3rd person N hé hit hío, héo híe, hí
G his hire hira hiora heora
D him hire him
A hine hit híe hié, hí


Possessive Pronouns
Sg. Min – můj Pl. hira - jejich
Ţin - tvůj
Sín – jeho, její, jeho
Form of Neutrum: his;
Demonstrative Pronouns
weak deixis
stronger deixes
ad1) sé, seo, ţaet (ten, ta, to)
Singular Plural

Mask. Neutr. Fem. Mask., Neutr., Fem.
N sé ţaet sío, séo ţá
G ţais ţáere ţára (ţáera)
D ţáem ţáere ţáem (ţám)
A ţone ţaet ţá ţá


ad2 ) Singular Plural

Mask. Neutr. Fem. Mask, Neutr., Fem.
N ţás ţis ţéos, ţíos ţás
G ţis(s)es ţisse ţissa
D ţis(s)um ţisse ţis(s)um
A ţisne ţis ţás ţás


Interrogative Pronouns

- one form for Mask. And Femin., special form for Neutrum;

Mask., Femin. Netrum
N hwá hwaet
G hwaes hwaes
D hwáem hwáem
A hwone hwaet

Indefinite Pronouns

áeniз (na any) *na. – nová Aj
án (na. one, an)
náwiht (ne án with = nothing – ani jedna věc)
swilch (na. such)
Numerals
Cardinal