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According to M. H. Abrams (b.1912) there are two common and antithetical metaphors of mind (and process of understanding literature), one comparing the mind to a reflector of external object (mirror), the other to a radiant projector (lamp) which makes a contribution to the objects it perceives. The first of these was characteristic of much of the thinking from Plato to the n18th century. The second typifies the prevailing Romantic conception of the poetic mind.





Mirror










Lamp



Four elements in the total situation of a work of art are discriminated and made salient, by one or another synonym, in almost all theories which aim to be comprehensive. First there's the work, the artistic product itself. The second common element is the artificer, the artist. Then Universe - everything which has become the subject of the work and the relationship of the work to “reality”. Audience - the listeners, spectators, reader whom the work is addressed or to whose attention it becomes available.
Three theories will explain the work of art principally by relating it to another thing: the universe, the audience, or the artist. The fourth will explain the work by considering it in isolation.
History of the theory of art is 2,500 years old and only recently the metaphor of a mirror changed into metaphor of a lamp (perhaps 150 years ago) and art started to be interpreted as a source of illumination of this world. Until 18th century literary theory was a part of many other studies (mainly philosophy). From 18th century it has been independent. The reason is the fact that literature uses same material as theory of literature - language (this is also one of the reasons of literature being part of other studies, mainly philosophy). Všechny výroky o literárním díle mají vztah k filozofickým premisám z nichž člověk vychází; there are no true and false answers in literary theory; they are not verifiable by empirical study. Criteria: scope, depth, precision and coherence of statements we pronounce.
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Mimetic theories
Mimetic critics ask how well the work of literature accords with the real world. Is it accurate? Is it correct? Is it moral? Does it show how people really act?
Work of art (novel) is a mirror of a universe, in it you can see the world
Mirror = human mind as a reflector of the universe.
This approach can be seen ever since from Plato up to the 18th century.
The explanation of art as essentially an imitation of aspects of the universe. Works of art, Socrates says, are all imitations.

Plato: Art is lower on his scale of values. Work of art reflects reality; universe is a reflection of the world of ideas (created by God, perfect) ( art is a reflection of a reflection (a shadow of a shadow). Art imitates the world of appearance (universe) and not of essence (ideal world) - so works of art have a lowly status in the order of existing things and he doesn't consider art very high;
Effect of poetry is bad = it is only thing of appearance; one should aim for truth rather than appearance. Plato didn't create any artistic theory - only passages about that.

Ideas
1.

Universe


Art 2.



Aristotle: Aristotle did work out theory of art in his book “Poetics” (literature was synonymous to poetry in ancient times). He defines poetry as an imitation (reflection), there is no world of ideas, and literature imitates nature (universe).
He sees 2 levels of imitation: universe and literature (work of art). Arts are free from competitions with any other human activities as Plato claims.
Aristotle is the first to distinguish literature as a different kind of activity than any other; he set apart different genres in his poetics, he analyses genres themselves (he talks about plot, characters, theme, etc.). He provided us with instruments of analysis (clear categories); for him tragedy is top genre - it enables audience to experience dramatic action, feeling of pity and fear and through that achieve catharsis, which helps to ease our tensions.

Universe


Work of Art
Artist Audience
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Hermeneutic circle:


Text
Universe


AudienceAuthor
UniverseUniverse



Mimetic theories lasted to renaissance and classicism;

Renaissance brings focus on audience

Universe


Work of Art

Audience Author


Renaissance stresses impact of literature on audience. Imitation continued to be prominent item till 18th century.
The renaissance focuses on inner life, moral aspects; the tendency is to replace action with such elements as human character, thoughts - under influence of empiricism.
In renaissance they were thinking of validity of literature and mimetic approach. They focused on way literature effects audience.
Pragmatic theories (having purpose) - art is imitation which is instrumental, has some kind of purpose; without it, it would be useless. They consider mimesis instrumentally.
Teach and delight: educate through entertaining literature (methods); sir Philip Sydney wrote an essay “An apology for poetry” - language of poetry is valuable, through poetry you can tell deep philosophical ideas without using technical philosophical language, which ordinary people don't understand; you can use it to say something important; Renaissance critics had moral aims;
Pragmatic theories - poetry has a purpose to achieve certain effects in an audience. In order to teach and delight, poets imitate not what is, has been, or shall be, but only what may be and should be. Work of art as a means to an end, an instrument for getting something done and tends to judge its value according to its success in achieving that aim. Universal poetry, no matter what the genre, Hurd says, is an art whose end is the maximum possible pleasure. The pragmatic orientation, ordering the aim of the artist and the character of the work to the nature, the needs, and the springs of pleasure in the audience, characterized by far the greatest part of criticism from the time of Horace through the 18th century.
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Classicism stresses aspect of pleasure and entertainment. In modern theory and history of art the term Classicism describes a style whose major categories and values are derived from, or at least referred to, the at and thought of the “classical” age of Western culture, i.e. the Greek and Roman antiquity.

Expressive theories

Work of art is the expression of the author’s mind, he expresses his ideas and feelings in the work of art, work of art illuminates universe, we can see the world with greater understanding = romanticism
Lamp = human mind as a projector illuminating the world
This approach is the romantic conception (conception of a poetic mind). It ramifies into aesthetics, poetics, and practical criticism.
Expressive theories - a work of art is essentially the internal made external, resulting from a creative process operating under the impulse of feeling, and embodying the combined product of the poet’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. The primary source and subject matter of a poem, therefore, are the attributes and actions of the poet’s own mind.
The school of romanticism, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge - “The Lyrical Ballads” (1798) - in the preface Wordsworth says: “poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” - we’re talking about feelings, emotions which are inner world of poet spontaneously flow outside of the poet and expresses themselves in poetry.
There is a shift from the external (universe) to the internal world of the poet - the metaphor of a mirror changes into metaphor of a lamp - poet projects his feelings, they found they expression in poetry (lamp). Poetry is defined as imaginative process which modifies and synthesises the images (from his soul). External world is raw material which is converted from external fact to the poetry (by poet’s mind). The question of expressive theory is whether this poetry genuine expression of poet’s mind is. The hierarchy shifts from the epic to the lyric. Poetry embodies itself in symbol because his emotions look for objective correlative. The poet’s audience is reduced to a single member, consisting of the poet himself. All poetry, as Mill puts it, is of the nature of soliloquy.

Objective theories

These are theories of the 20th centuries.
Objective theories consider text in isolation without reflection of universe, audience or author. (There is one exception - Marxist theory: it considers work of art in relation to author and audience.)
Objective theories - regards the work of art in isolation from all these external points of reference, analyses it as a self-sufficient entity constituted by its parts in their internal relations, and sets out to judge it solely by criteria intrinsic to its own mode of being.
Objective theories want to know what text has to say about itself. Work of art is regarded in isolation from all the external (author, audience, and universe). It is self-sufficient entity. Edgar Allan Poe, T.S. Elliot, McLeish: “poem doesn't mean anything, it is something”, Malarme;
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Modernism:

A term used to describe the characteristic aspects of literature and art between World War I and World War II. Influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche's annunciation of the death of God Karl Marx's view of consciousness as a product of socio-historical factors, Sigmund Freud's view of the unconscious as the determinant of motivation and behaviour, and the dislocating effects of the carnage and devastation of the war, modernism embodies a lack of faith in Western civilization and culture -- its humanism and rationalism.
The last movement which occurs in cultural history which is homogeneous in its ideas, visions and principles. There were many reasons for modernism to appear: in 19th century certain new ideas in various fields of human activities occurred. One of them is new discoveries in physics (Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, Max Planck’s quantum theory - time occurs in jumps). These new ideas had deep philosophical consequences. Absolute values more or less seemed to be valid (values such as justice, truth, faith). Another new idea was Charles Darwin’s evolution theory (human beings are final phase of evolution process). People reacted to his theory with defensiveness.

T.E. Hulme: (1883-1941)
He is critical of romanticism and look back to classicism.
He was a member of “images group” - poetry is based on verbal image (creation of verbal images). It expresses idea through verbal image.
He declares that after 100 years of romanticism it is time for classical revival.
Political ideas behind these 2 movements: it is time we abound romantic feelings, it is time to go back to heart poetry of classicism.
Left wing movement (revolutionary) - romanticism (democratic, popular). Classicism - right wing uses abstract words, conservative in its political attitudes.
Romanticism believes in essential goodness of man (Rousseau) - it is society that corrupts man. Romanticism: man is a reservoir of possibilities and you can so rearrange society by the deconstruction of oppressive order then these possibilities will have a chance and you will get progress.
Classicism - man is essentially bad (original sin) and it is only repressive institutions of society that keep man in limits. Classicism: man is reservoir of evil. We have to educate him, force him to positive behaviour. Man is a fix and limited animal, whose nature is constant. It is only by discipline, tradition and organization that anything decent can be brought out of man.
It is necessary to bring new form to poetry. Against moaning of romanticism. He asks for dry, clear poem. He doesn't want poetry full of emotions. Poetry has nothing to do with eternity, emotions, and mysticism. Fancy is just not decoration. It is a new kind of metamorphosis that poetry goes through.
“I want to maintain that after a hundred years of romanticism, we are in for a classical revival and that the particular weapon of this new classical spirit, when it works in verse, will be fancy.”
Two views: one, that man is intrinsically good, spoilt by circumstances and the other that he is intrinsically limited, but disciplined by order and tradition to something fairly decent.
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972)
Born in Idaho, America.
“Make it (poetry) new” was his slogan. From his association with T. E. Hulme, F. S. Flint and others around 1910, and their interest in the Japanese haiku and tanka, came the poetic style known as Imagism. Pound’s most important literary friendship was with T. S. Eliot, whom he met in 1915.
In 1925 he settled in the Italian resort of Rapallo. At this time Italy was in the early stages of Mussolini’s fascist régime, the achievements of which Pound greatly admired. Unfortunately he failed to see the evil in fascism even after the considered mentally unfit and after a long sequestration in mental hospitals, Pound was finally allowed to live out his last years in Italy.
(Mental) image is that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time.
Pound demands 3 principles in poetry:
direct treatment of the thing (whether subjective or objective)
to use absolutely no word that does not contribute to this presentation (economy of words)
natural rhythm of language; as regarding rhythm compose to the sequence of the musical prose of language (free verse) not in a sequence of metronome (fix metre).
These three rules shouldn't be treated as a dogma.
Free verse shouldn't be an excuse for poet who cannot write in metre.
Poet shouldn't pay much attention to critics (that themselves, in many cases, cannot write poetry) unless they are poets. Poet should use symbolic language not ornaments (decoration). Poet should master all the tropes and figures of speech. Artist should master all known forms and systems of metric.
Pound’s credo is that absolute rhythm should correspond to the emotion that it wants to stimulate. Perfect symbol is a natural object + symbolic value. Don't be descriptive; remember that the painter can describe a landscape much, better than you can, and that he has to know a deal more about it. When Shakespeare talks of the “Dawn in russet mantle clad” he presents something which the painter does not present.
“It is better to present one Image in a lifetime than to produce voluminous works.”
“Pay no attention to the criticism of men who have never themselves written a notable work.”
“Use either no ornament or good ornament.”












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Thomas Sterns Eliot: (1885-1965)
He was born in the USA, studied Harvard, and then went to England where he studied in Oxford. Then he travelled in Germany and France where he also studied. In 1914 he settled in Great Britain and in 1927 he became naturalised British.
In 1922 Eliot published poem “The Waste Land” - it made him the spokesman of his poetic generation. He was Ezra Pound’s friend who was his guru at the beginning. They collaborated on their work. They also produced critical essays. Together they founded a publishing house called Faber & Faber which exists until today (its editions are quite expensive) - it publishes high quality academic work, poetry and drama. They were also active in journalism. T. S. Eliot defines himself as”classical in literature, royalist in politics and Anglo-catholic”. His work includes collected poems, “Four Quartets”, drama (“Murder in the cathedral”; “The Cocktail Party” - they are written in verse and it uses some of the techniques from classical Greek drama, e.g. choir). T. S. Eliot is a Nobel Prize laureate and he also was awarded Order of Merit.
In his concept of culture Eliot takes culture as a much broader and more complex (not only official products, also e.g. eating habits, pop culture, clothing etc.)
In drama he looks back to Elizabethan and Jacobean drama (early renaissance), in poetry to metaphysical poets (John Don). Eliot is very critical of John Milton and romantic and Victorian poetry.
In one of his essays called “Tradition and individual talent” Eliot stresses sense of historical consciousness. Before writing poet should know as much as possible, to be as educated as possible. Only then he can add something new.
Eliot is also very critical of “natural talents” that create without hard work. Hard and never-ending work is the key.
No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance, his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists. You cannot value him alone; you must set him, for contrast and comparison, among the dead.
Poet must develop or procure the consciousness of the past and that he should continue to develop this consciousness throughout his career.















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Virginia Woolf: 1882 - 1941
Virginia Woolf was one of the founders of a group called “The Bloomsbury Group” - group of intellectuals (Giles Lytton Strachey “Queen Victoria”, John Maynard Keynes - economist, E. M. Forster - literary critic, etc.). James Joyce “Ulysses” - published in the same year as “The Waste Land”.
She began her literary career as a reviewer and essayist, and she continued to write occasional criticism after she had achieved fame as a novelist. Some of her novels are “Mrs. Dalloway”, “To the Lighthouse”, “The Waves”.
Virginia Woolf uses in her novel “Jacob’s Room” the technique of stream of consciousness. It means that the author records the flow of thoughts of protagonist’s mind unstructured. This is the key concept for modernists.
In her essay “Modern Fiction” Virginia Woolf says: free writers who declare themselves as realists (Bennett, H. G. Wells, and John Goldsworthy) she considers them to be materialist. They are concerned with the body and not with the spirit (pseudo-realism). They write of trivial things which are transitory and they are made look important. They stay on the surface (description of how people look like, what they wear, and conversation) not tell us what characters think (without saying it). They tell us externals, not get to the core what is life about (what goes in mind, what is the spirit like).
Woolf suggests: look within life! Life within is in the minds of people. Life is not about fashion, polite conversation. She wants examine for a moment of ordinary mind (what goes on in the mind of ordinary person). “Life is a luminous hello”. The young writers attempt to come close to life and preserve it in mote authentic way. We should get rid of common conventions of writing.

Edward Morgan Forster: (1879 - 1970)
Novelist connected with “The Bloomsbury Group”, also critic and professor at Cambridge.
He introduced certain categories of literature theory:
story (fabule, chronological) - plot (syžet, logická provázanost)
Flat x round characters: in fiction (cause in real life there are no flat characters) one can find flat characters and round characters.
Flat characters were called humorous in the 17th century, and are sometimes called types, and sometimes caricatures.
They are often used to create contrast to round characters
They can be expressed in one sentence.
They are easily recognised whenever they come in
They are easily remembered by the reader afterwards
They are not changed by circumstances, they move through them
Flat characters are not very often used in tragedies because they are unconvincing in tragedy
Round characters are looked at from different perspectives and they develop through the text.
The point of view: point from which the story may be told. The novelist can either describe the characters from outside or he can assume omniscience and describe them from within, or he can place himself in the position of one of them and affect to be in the dark as to the motives of the rest, or there are certain intermediate attitudes.
Rhythm in fiction - every text has its own inner dynamics. Particular information isn't introduced haphazardly. Information is in a certain tension which makes a rhythm in prose.
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Psychoanalytic criticism
Sigmund Freud: (1856 - 1939)
He was born in Příbor na Moravě. His terminology intercepted whole modern culture (e.g. art, literature theory, etc.). Freud’s influence has extended far beyond the boundaries of psychoanalysis, of which he is the recognised founder.
Freud’s key ideas:
He says that most of the human mental activity is unconscious. This idea was quite surprising for people at those times.
Primary source of mental energy is libido (sexual instincts; creative energy). Freud created diagram of human mind:

















ID - unconsciousness
EGO - consciousness
SUPEREGO - conscience

Source of creative energy is in ID (as a result of our suppressed desires).
Freud is an individualist (it is your individual desire which you suppress - “it's your problem”) and purely materialist (it is hormones).
Freud also works with dreams - in them things suppressed in ID come out spontaneously. We are unable to interpret them (unless we are trained for it).
Freud talks about literature as a self-therapy to release inner tension. Writers suffer from neurosis and therefore they need to talk out of their traumas and so they write. Children plays are also manifestation of unconsciousness - by playing roles we release inner tension. Motives for day dreaming are two essential ambitions: sexual ambitions (female more often, e.g. maternity instinct) and social ambitions.

desire
prohibition
suppression
frustration
a) creation
b) neurosis ( therapy
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We may lay it down that a happy person never fantasies, only an unsatisfied one. The motive forces of fantasies are unsatisfied wishes, and every single fantasy is the fulfilment