zkouška - otázky

of a wish. These motivating wishes vary according to the sex, character and circumstances of the person who is having the fantasy. They are either ambitious wishes or erotic ones.

Carl Gustav Jung: (1875 - 1961)
He was a pupil and protégé of Freud, but broke away from him to develop his own school of analytical psychology.
The main disagreement was over the nature of libido, which Jung believed to be more than sexual. Jung postulated the existence of a collective unconscious: i.e. a racial memory inherited by all members of the human family and connecting modern man with his primeval roots. The collective unconscious is manifested in the recurrence of certain images, stories, figures called archetypes - the psychic residua of numberless experiences of the same type.
In his school libido is not individual but collective and it's not sexual but caught in collective unconsciousness where so called archetypes are collected. Human minds are interconnected with one another through collective unconsciousness. Collective unconsciousness contains certain models (archetypes) which we are unconsciously able to understand. They are understandable for the whole mankind. Jung is interested in what collective unconsciousness do with an individual. On a conscious level there are three components:
Aminus - male element; rationality
Amina - female element; emotionality
It is important to make a harmony between these two elements
Shadow - suppressed desires, negative tendencies; It is not important to diminish them but accept them. The key is not to suppress this level but accept it. Then we can influence this level.

Claude Lévi-Strauss: (1908)
He is a social anthropologist, born in Belgium, educated at the University of Paris
He is interested in analysing myths
Method of structuralism - the study of deep structures of human mind leads us to truth of human mind;
He draws parallels between the folklore and the mythologies (American Indians + Holy Grail legend; Australian aborigines + Oedipus complex).
He takes a topic of incest as an example - it is systematically universal - all cultures declare taboo of incest; he compares this taboo of incest with exchange of words in the conversation (communication); certain structures are shared throughout the world.









10

Russian formalists:

Their attention is focused on the form of poetry rather than content (formalists collapse difference between form and content - form elaborates on creation of the content (massage of the poem).
According to the precepts of Russian Formalism, content is the "motivation" of form, and the literary work is an assemblage of devices which function within a total textual system. "Literariness" emerges when these devices, normally perceived by the reader to be familiar and conventional, are fore grounded, brought into an unaccustomed prominence such that the effect upon the reader is one of estrangement or defamiliarization
There were two centres of formalism in Russia:
Moscow - Moscow linguistic circle;
OPAYAZ in Saint Petersburg - it is mainly concerned with literature (poetry)
Roman Jacobson, Victor Shlovsky, Boris Tomashevsky, Boris Eichenbaum. During 1920s and 1930s - they appeared parallel with modernists and psychoanalysis.
Russian modernists aimed at scientific criticism of literature; founding school with modern linguistics. They ask: what makes poetry poetic - they stressed the technique through which a poem is written.

Victor Shlovsky
Born in 1893, a leading figure in the school of literary and linguistic theory known as Russian formalism
He introduces term ostranenie (making strange, defamiliarization) - something we think we know very well (and thinks it is boring) because of special technique; process of changing something well known into something new, strange and unusual. Shlovsky´s crucially important concept of defamiliarization (ostranenie, making strange) is essentially structuralist in that it treats literary technique, as Saussure had treated language, as a system of differences. What startles us into a new way of seeing is a new ways of saying, and we can only appreciate the novelty of that against what is habitual and expected in any given context.
System of differences: you can understand concept of any colour only with system of differences between other colours.
We see things differently because they are said (expressed) differently (originally). We appreciate novelty on the background of the old, traditional.
Prohibited in Stalin’s Russia.

Roman Jakobson: (1896-1982)
Born in Russia, a founder-member of the Moscow Linguistic Circle which played a major part in the development of Russian formalism. In 1920 he moved to Czechoslovakia and helped to found the Prague Linguistic Circle. The Nazi invasion in 1939 forced him to move again, and in 1941 he arrived in the USA, where he lived until his death, teaching at Columbia, Harvard and MIT.
Art is thinking in images. Work of art: díla stvořená zvláštní technikou s cílem udělat z nich umělecká díla co nejumělečtěji.
Art in literature starts on phonetic level (poet uses sounds to make his poetry poetic) then characteristic lexical structures, thoughts. The purpose is to remove automation of perception (vnímání)
Obsah a forma spolupůsobí na významu. Writer is of negligible importance; importance is on literariness of the text; syuzhet (plot) - fabula (story); Tomashevsky - motif - základní jednotka nesoucí význam uvnitř díla; Jakobson - funkce metafory v poezii a metonimie v próze.
Attempt to understand “literariness” - to define in linguistic terms what makes a verbal message a work of art.
11
Structuralism:
At its simplest, structuralism claims that the nature of every element in any given situation has no significance by itself, and in fact is determined by all the other elements involved in that situation. The full significance of any entity cannot be perceived unless and until it is integrated into the structure of which it forms a part
A theory of literature that focuses on the codes and conventions that underground all discourse and on the system of language as a functioning totality.

Ferdinand de Saussure: 1857 - 1913
A Swiss linguist who studied in Germany and France before taking up a university chair in his native city of Geneva.
Father of modern linguistics
Define human being as structured. They study events within the structure. Function of events should be studied.
He laid basis of Semiology - science of signs and system of signs. How to cope with complexity and chaos of modern world - we should not aspire to achieve absolute values but only relative significant within a structure. We should choose a point of view - in that given point of view phenomena are defined within structure of relationship. Best defined of human being is ability to speak.
He never published any study. He only lectured at Geneva and his students collected his lectures and published in “Cours de la linguistique générale” - bible of linguistic - deep analysis of language which is synchronic (not history study of language - diachronic). At the age of 21 he published his dissertation of vowel system of Indo-European language. Later he published “Use of genitive in ?sansocit?” as his doctor thesis. Synchronical method of study - language at a given moment.
What is a language and what is language made up of? The smallest unit (which means something) of any language is the sign. Language is system of signs.
The background of the word in one's mind is different from another's background. Role of context for the meaning of words.
How can we define sign? A sign is made up of 2 different parts:
its denotation - the immediate meaning
most signs have also connotative meaning - denotation + symbolic values. E.g. table - round table. Connotative meaning is metaphorical value of the sign which enable us to go beyond denotative value.
He studied relationship between things and words they are expressed with. There's no relation at all - “signs are arbitrary”, with exception of onomatopoetic words.
Why is it so difficult to make good translation when language is structure of signs? It is because that language is not nomenclature of signs - each language springs from historical, geographical, cultural context. Language depends on its context. e.g. pet.
Rozdíl mezi jazykem a řečí (language and speech) - jazyk je systém (e.g. syntaktická pravidla, stylistika . . .), speech je konkrétní realizace systému.
Before Saussure, the study of language, or philology as it was usually called, had been essentially historical, tracing change and development in phonology and semantics within and between languages or groups of languages. Saussure argued that a scientific linguistic could never be based on such a diachronic study but only by approaching language as a synchronic system, i.e., a system of which all the elements and rules are in theory simultaneously available to the user of the language.
V Paříži tzv. strukturalisté druhé generace:
Gérard Genette: (1930)
Pojem intertextualita - schopnost textu nést v sobě rozličné předchozí texty.
Palimpsest - (nově použitý pergamen), schopnost textu nést v sobě náznaky textů minulých (e.g. J. Joyce - Ulysses).
Distinction between story and plot - navazuje na ruské formalisty.
Studies Plato and Aristotle in relation to rhetoric.
Upozornil na to, že literární věda ale i literatura jako umění používá stejný materiál - jazyk.
Writer questions the universe, artist questions universe of signs.
fabula (the story as it would have been enacted in reality), sjuzet (the presentation of that story in a discourse). 12

New Critics

A literary movement that started in the late 1920s and 1930s and originated in reaction to traditional criticism that new critics saw as largely concerned with matters extraneous to the text, e.g., with the biography or psychology of the author or the work's relationship to literary history. New Criticism proposed that a work of literary art should be regarded as autonomous, and so should not be judged by reference to considerations beyond itself.
School in the USA that at the same time adopted ideas of structuralism.
A term applied to the criticism written by John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate. R. P. Blackmur, Robert Penn Warren, Cleanth Brooks, and others as well as to the seminal ideas of T. S. Eliot, I. A. Richards, and William Empson. A reaction against the old criticism which saw art as self-expression (Romanticism) or exalted the subjectivity of the reader (Impressionism) or applied extrinsic criteria of morality and value to literature (New humanism) or gave credence to the professed intentions of the author (intentional fallacy) or confused what a poem is with what a poem does (affective fallacy), the New Criticism regards the work of art as an autonomous object, a self-contained universe of discourse.
New Criticism maintains that a close reading of literary texts will reveal the multiple meanings and nuanced complexities of their verbal texture as well as the oppositions and tensions which are balanced in the organic unity of the text
Stress on the context.
Idea of two fallacies (klam):
affective fallacy: klamný dojem, že je důležité, jakým způsobem text působí na čtenáře
intentional fallacy: klamný dojem, že je důležité, co tím chtěl autor říci
Oba jsou zcela lhostejné - je třeba studovat text sám o sobě bez těchto perspektiv
Roland Barthes: born 1915
Studied French literature and classics at the University of Paris. Semiology, in Barthes´s terms, is a development of the linguistics of Saussure and Jakobson, which also influenced the social anthropologist Lévi-Strauss.
“Autor je mrtev” - zdůrazňuje roli čtenáře při vytváření významu textu. Co čtenář to význam - pluralita významů.
Tel - Quel - časopis strukturalistů.
Studuje Derrida, Lacana, Saussura, Jakobsona.
Production of meaning is the process of reading (not writing). This is the birth of the reader at the cost of the death of the writer.
Criticism consists not in discovering something previously unperceived in the work, but in covering, or fitting together, the language of the artist with the language of the critic, and his assertion that criticism, like logic, is ultimately tautological.





13



George Orwell: 1903-1950
Real name Eric Blair, was born in India, the son of a British civil servant, he was educated in England, then served in the Indian Imperial Police in Burma from 1922-1928. He went to Spain to fight on the Republican side in the Spanish civil war, and was wounded at the front. Tramp in Paris and London - what it means to be really poor. On the side of disadvantaged, oppressed. Censorship in the BBC -Stalin. The Tribune - column.
According to Orwell the English language is in a bad way
Our civilization is decadent, and our language must inevitably share in the general collapse.
It is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economics causes.
It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.
Modern English is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble. If one gets rid of these habits one can think more clearly.
Dying metaphors: is technically dead has in effect reverted to being an ordinary word worn-out metaphors; e.g. stand shoulder to shoulder with, play into the hands of, Achilles’ heel, swan song.
Operators (verbal false limbs): e.g. prove unacceptable, make contact with, have the effect of, play a leading part in; = elimination of simple verbs; in addition passive voice is wherever possible used in preference to the active, and noun construction are used instead of gerunds (by examination of instead of by examining)
Pretentious diction: words like element, effective, primary, exhibit, eliminate, liquidate are used to dress up simple statements and give an air of scientific impartiality to biased judgements. Foreign words are used to give an air of culture and elegance. Except for the useful abbreviations i.e., e.g., etc., there's no real need for using them.
Meaningless words: words like romantic, plastic, values, human, dead, vitality, as used in art criticism, are strictly meaningless. Words of this kind are often used in a consciously dishonest way. That is, the person who uses them has his own private definition, but allows his hearer to think he means something quite different.
The attraction of this way of writing is that it is easy. If you use ready-made phrases you not only don't have to hunt about for words, you also don't have to bother with the rhythms of your sentences.
What is above all needed is to let the meaning choose the word, and not the other way about.







14

Marxists:

A sociological approach to literature that viewed works of literature or art as the products of historical forces that can be analyzed by looking at the material conditions in which they were formed.
Criticism based on the historical, economic, and sociological theory of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. According to Marxism, the consciousness of a given class at a given historical moment derives from modes of material production. The set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and ideas that constitutes the consciousness of this class forms an ideological superstructure, and this ideological superstructure is shaped and determined by the material infrastructure or economic base.
Marx and Engels never developed any aesthetics; Marxism-Leninism: mouthpiece of communism.
Theodor Adorno, Max Horkhaimer, Herbert Marcus, Luis Lat…, Frederich Jameson, Terry Eagleton (born in 1943, British Marxist, warning against commodification of art and literature).
According to Marxist critics:
the writer should be committed to working class cause (should never be critical of party)
literature should be progressive, optimistic, realistic and accessible to the masses
Collective spirit rather than individual spirit.

Georg Lukacz (1885-1971)
Hungarian Marxist critic born in Budapest, educated at various German universities.
Prose does reveal certain underline patterns of society. Text provides us insight into workings of society.
Praises realism but attacks modernism, seeing the latter, with its stream-of-consciousness techniques, as a decadent and desperate retreat into subjectivity, a feckless denial of the objective reality of class conflict and social contradictions, and an inadvertent testimony to the alienated state of the individual in mass society.















15
Existentialism:

A philosophical, religious, and literary term, emerging from World War II, for a group of attitudes surrounding the pivotal notion that existence precedes essence. According to Jean-Paul Sartre, "man is nothing else but what he makes of himself." Because there is no human nature or essence, a person is an ontological emptiness or nothingness to be filled or defined by the sum of his or her acts. Anguish arises from the fact that in choosing for oneself, one is performing an exemplary act and thereby choosing for all humankind.
"There's no reality except in action."
Kořeny v 19. století v Kirgegaardovi, Heidegerovi. V lit. Sartre, Camus, Bouvier, film Ponti.
Existence precedes essence. Only by consciously existing you can form some kind of human essence. Existence předchází podstatu (of human being); to exist means to take responsible choices.
Ateisté: making authentic existence you can reach self-salvation
Věřící: autenticita je ve víře
Sartre: (1905-1980)
One of the great Frenchmen of the 20th century renowned as philosopher, novelist, dramatist and political journalist. Sartre was offered the Novel Prize for Literature in 1964, but declined it on ideological grounds.
Man is born kind of emptiness (le néant), man is free absolutely - it is binding (závazné), man is free to write or not but bind is that man chooses write . . .; Má být angažovaný pro svobodu;
Marshal McLuhan: (1911-1980)
Canadian
Interpreting the work of certain modern writes as preserves of important cultural values in the hostile environment of mass society
“The Gütenberg Galaxy” is based on the assumption that the nature and development of human knowledge are best understood by studying our modes of perception and communication, which are subject to change.
In primitive, preliterate societies communication is basically oral-aural, but involves all the senses in person-to-person encounters. You can observe gestures, hear etc.
The next phase of cultural development is that of script, which depersonalises communication to some extent, but not entirely. It is the printing press (invention of Gütenberg) which divorces communication from all senses except the visual. In the Gütenberg era, knowledge is acquired in silence and solitude as the mind follows the linear, logical connections of the printed text. Communication becomes linear - you can't have any feedback, you receive what writer printed
Phase of mass-media: the Gütenberg era, however, is already being superseded by electric and electronic media, especially television, which operate in a way analogous to primitive oral-aural communication, converting the world into a “global village”.


16

René Wellek: 1903-1995,
Born in Vienna and emigrated to the USA after taking his PhD at the University of Prague. He has taught at the universities of Princeton, Prague, London, and Iowa.
Insists on division of literary disciplines, study literature in historical context, establishing common . . . of literary critic: literature as a kind of chronological context. Literature should be critically studied in historical context.
Division of literary theory
fields of literary criticism - each discipline has different methods of study
study literary history
complete relativism should be abound, there are certain external values;
Literary cannon - classical works, there should be agreement upon lit. Cannon in Anglo Saxon world. Those literary works that are privileged by a culture. Works we tend to think of as classics o as “Great Books” - texts that are repeatedly reprinted in anthologies of literature.

Northrop Frye: (1912-1991)
Born in Canada and studied at Toronto University and Oxford, moving into the filed of literature after beginning as a student of theology
Most important (influential) critic in 1950s-60s. Anatomy of criticism (1957).
Requires method of study close to the methods of natural sciences - the archetypal method. Critique: he applies rigid scheme on work of art;
“The Great Code”
literature is central division between history (facts) and philosophy (ideas); the meaningless criticism is emotional, subjective, which derives from your personal cheek points;
He dismiss structuralism
He suggests: there should be some co-ordinating principle - individual psychology of author, his personal mythology - which symbols authors use and why
He suggests: archetypal genres. For Frye, an archetype is "a symbol, usually an image, which recurs often enough in literature to be recognizable as an element of one's literary experience." Frye devises an elaborate taxonomy of modes, symbols, myths, and genres, establishing a complex and comprehensive correspondence between the basic genres -- comedy, romance, tragedy, and irony - and the myths and archetypal patterns associated with the seasonal cycle of spring, summer, fall, and winter.
Literary criticism should acquire something of the methodological discipline and coherence of the sciences.
Ob