zkouška - otázky

at have one stem and an affix,
they are affix-words, they can be of two types:
- preffix + stem
- suffix + stem
we do not consider other possibilities that exist to simplify the
system. The whole system of suffixes and prefixes is described in
grammar.
2) compound words (CPW) = words that have two
(or more)stems, these words are sometimes called "hyphenated", but
in some of them the hyphen is not present

CXW - COMPLEX WORDS

1) Affixed words
a) suffixes
- attracting the stress
- ain, entertain - ee, refugee - ese, Japanese
- ette, cigarette - esque,-ique, picturesque, unique
if the stem consists of more than one slb. there will be
secondary stress
- that do not affect stress placement
* able, comfortable * age, storage * al, rerefusal
* en, widen * ful, grateful * ing, surprising
* ish, oldish (if the word is verb with more than one slb., the
stress is on the penultimate slb. - demolish)
* -like, catlike * -less, motionless * -ly,hastily
*-ment,punishment *- ness, yellowness, *- ous, adventurous
* -fy,glorify * -wise, otherwise * -y, funny (adj. of nouns)
- that affect the placements of the stress in the stem
a) primary stress on the last slb. of the stem:
* -eous, advantageous * -graphy, geography * -ial, industrial
* - ic,climatic * -ion, perfection * -ious, injurious
* -ty, tranquility * -ive, rflexive

b) prefixes
-there does not exist any regularity, or predictability. The best
treatment is to consider these words as the words without
prefixes

2) Compound words
words consisting of two stems (or more) that can exist independently
as two individual words. They are sometimes separated by a hyphen
ex.: fruit-cake

- N + N type:
typewriter, tea-cup * stress is normally on the first element
- Adj. + ed type:
bad-tempered * stress on the last element
- Number + * type:
second-class * stress on the second element
- Type that functions as adverb:
down stream, North-East * stress on the second element
- Type that functions as verb:
ill-treat * stress on the second element

- Variable stress:if the compound is followed by a word where the
first slb. is stressed
bad-tempered bad-tempered teacher

- Word-class pairs
- Noun , Adjectives x Verbs
examples: abstract (A) abstract (V)
conduct (N) conduct (V)
contract (N) contract (V)
contrast (N) contrast (V)
desert (N) desert (V)
...


Handout No 10

ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH

Connected speech - is a linguistic term used to refer to spoken
language in the case of its analysis as a sequence of units and a
comparison with the form of these units when pronounced in
isolated form
in other words - pronunciation of a word can vary when pronounced
isolated and when pronounced in a phrase

Then we can describe various processes that are typical for
connected speech and that can be observed and described only there.

These aspects ( characteristics) are:
* assimilation
* elision
* r liaison
* weak forms
* t-voicing (see Wells - Pronouncing Dictionary)
* stress shifting
* double consonants letters and double consonant sounds
(geminates) (see Wells - Pronouncing Dictionary)

Weak form
A certain group of English words can be pronounced in two
different ways. This two ways are called:
strong form and weak form
Strong form:
- if a word is pronounced isolated in its "full" form, with
regular placement of the word stress. Sometimes this form is called
a dictionary form.
Weak form:
- a word is pronounced in a phrase or utterance and is not
isolated. Usually it looses its stress and is more or less
shortened
example: were - [we]

Words that belong to this group are mostly functional words.
That means they somehow help to create the structure of a
sentence and seldom carry any "dictionary meaning". Functional
words are conjunctions, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs.

The strong form of these words that can have the weak form is
used usually in these cases:
- at the end of a sentence
- when it is used as a contrasting word
- when it is emphasised
- when they are cited or quoted

Examples of words that have a weak form:
a, an, the, and, but, than, that, her, your, she, he, we, you,
him, her, them, us, at, for, from, of, to, as, some, there, can,
could, have, has, had, shall, should, must, do, does, am, are,
was, were

R - liaison
In connected speech we sometimes link words together. The speech
is smoother and more fluent. The best known example of such
linking is the use of "linking r"
linking "r"
* in non-rhotic languages "r" that is in final position is not pronounced in isolated words. If the words spelling offers
a final "r" and an other word beginning with a vowel follows, we
will pronounce the final "r". This corresponds to a historical
"r" in these words.
ex. : here are, far away ...
intrusive "r"
* exists in non-rhotic languages, some speakers do use "r" as a
linking element of two words even if the first word does not
offer the "r" in spelling. This does not correspond to
a historical "r".
ex.: formula A, sofa and ...
"intrusive r" can occur even in isolated words
ex.: thawing - where the r is inserted before the ending
*** both the cases - intrusive and linking r are examples of so
called junctures

* junctures: external open (pause)
close (between two sounds in a word)
internal open (word boundary)
ex.: internal open juncture - linking r
might earn x my turn

Elision
appears in rapid, casual speech. It means that some sounds
are omitted (they have zero realisation or are deleted)
- sometimes it is called gradation
examples:
a) loss of a weak vowel after p,t,k tomato, potato, today ...
b) weak vowel + n,l,r converted to a syllabic consonant: tonight,
police, correct,
c) complex clusters are cut short : acts [aeks]
d) loss of final v in "of" before consonants: ex. lots of them


Handout No 11

Intonation

a term that is used to describe behaviour of our voice during
speaking as it is linguistically important
- the most important variable that is used for the description is
pitch. The pitch can range from low to high.
- three conditions have to exist to detect linguistically
significant pitch differences:
a) the pitch has to be under speaker´s control
b) it has to be perceptible
c) we must be able to find contrasts

Form of intonation:

Tone - is the overall behaviour of the pitch in a "piece" (unit)
of speech. (this unit of speech is called utterance)
- simple tone can be of three types: level
falling
rising

- complex tone can be of two types: fall-rise
rise-fall

Pitch-height - is an important variable. Each person has its
own pitch range (key) but that does not mirror in meaning of a
sentence. But what mirrors in the meaning of a sentence is the
place in a pitch range where we put our intonation. The higher,
the more emphatic the utterance is.
thus we can distinguish - high (extra high) pitch level
- low pitch level


Tone-unit

Is the basic unit of description of intonation. There is the
following scheme of hierarchical relationships:

speech, utterance, tone-unit, foot, syllable, phoneme

There is always a slb in each tone-unit that carries significant
change of tone (carries one of those possible tones mentioned
above). This slb is called tonic syllable. As it carries the main
change in tone it is also somehow more prominent. That also means
it is stressed. This type of stress that is observed on the tonic
syllable is called tonic stress.

tonic stress (nuclear stress)
tonic syllable (nucleus)

tone units: can be a) simple
b) compound

Structure of a tone unit:

* pre-head - all unstressed syllables in a T-U preceding the
first stressed slb.

* head - extends from the first stressed slb. up to (not
including) the tonic slbl.

* tonic slb. - carries the change of tone (exception is the
level tone !)

* tail - everything that follows the tonic slb.

the general structure of a Tone Unit is as follows:

/pre-head/ head / tonic syllable / tail/

- whichever of the mentioned parts of any TU can be missing,
only the tonic syllable must be present otherwise there does not
exist a Tone-Unit.
- intonation goes over the whole tone unit. The most significant
part is that one going over the "tonic syllable". There are 5
possible tones as shown above. Anyway the tone unit which begins
with head can start in so called high key - which means the
speaker started his utterance with a high tone - then the head is
called high head
and vice versa
low key - the speaker started low (low head)