zkouška - otázky

on, when the spelling of the word begins with wh-. Some RP speakers pronounce these sequence with a kind of voiceless fricative with the same lip, tongue and jaw position as w. Example of the pair: witch - which
* similar situation is if the initial sequence in spelling is hu- (e.i. huge, human). [h] at the beginning is a voiceless palatal fricative.

Affricates

Sounds are made when the air pressure behind a complete closure is gradually released. The first part has a character of a plosiv, the second of fricative. Duration is slightly shorter then in pure fricatives.
In English - tš‚dž, voiced (lenis)\ voiceless (fortis)
In some dialects (Cockney) it is very short
Slightly aspirated in initial position
Pre-fortis clipping


Handout No.6

The syllable (suprasegmental elements)

Syllable - the second element in the row of suprasegmental elements that can be found in the language
( traditional division (grammatical point of view) would be:
sound - syllable - word - clause - sentence
( division from the viewpoint of discourse
* sound(phoneme)- syllable - word)- group of words - utterance - speech
* phoneme - syllable - rhythm group - intonation group

The notion of syllable - difficult to define
* phonetically - attempt to define on the basis of articulatory effort needed in order to produce them this results in "puls theory" – each syllable corresponds to an increase of air pressure in lungs
definition based on auditory terms – sonority (which is term used for overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch and duration) - in a string of sounds, some are more sonorous - are peaks of sonority. They correspond to the centre of a syllable.

* phonologically - definition focuses on the way sounds combine and produce sequence. Thus we get sounds that can occur on their own or at the centre of a sequence of sounds and sounds that cannot occur on their own and are at the edges of the sequence a pattern CV - consonant vowel - sequence, that can occur in all languages CVC - sequence called closed syllable (occurs in English) consists of onset-coda-centre (nucleus)
- onset and coda are called margins
- at syllabic margins can occur clusters - CCV, CCCV, CVCC, CVCCC.

In English (CCC)V(CCCC) syllabic pattern can occur.

Syllabic consonants - liquids (l,r) and nasals (m,n)

Handout No.7

Consonant clusters in onset and coda


* Consonant clusters in coda are of the same nature as clusters in onset. In onset maximal number of consonants is 3. Groups that can combine are described in more detail in Roach - Phonetics and Phonology of English, page 67 - 73.

Possible combinations in:

Onset
a) no consonant = zero onset
b) C = all possible consonants with the exception of n and z(§)
if (§) occurs, then it is usually in a borrowed word
c) CC = 1) pre-initial + initial
pre-initial is (s)
initial is (p,t,k,f,m,n)
example: sting, speak, sphere, strong, small, snake
2) initial + post-initial
initial is (p,t,k,b,d,g,th,s,ç,h,v,f,m,n,l,)
post-initial is (l,r,w,j)
example: plate, proud, breed, sweet, view
d) CCC = pre-initial + initial + post-initial
pre-initial is (s)
initial (p,t,k)
post-initial (l,r,w,j)
example: spray, stew, spring, squeak

Coda
a) no consonant = zero coda
b) C = final consonant can be any consonant except (h,r,w,j)
c) CC = 1) pre-final + final
pre-final is (m,n,nasal n,l,s)
final is ....
example: bent, hold, stomp, fast
2) final + post-final
final is ....
post-final is (s,z,t,d,th neznŘl‚) this post final
consonant is often a separate morpheme element
example: bals, worked, held, fifth
d) CCC = pre-final + final + post-final
pre-final is (l,n,nasal n,) m
final is (p,k,d,f,)
post-final1 (t,s,z,th voiceless)
post-final2 (s,z,t,d,th voiceless)
example: fifth, stomped,
in some cases there is post-final3 ex.: texts, sixths


Week and strong syllable

- when we talk about week and strong syllable, we refer to phonetic characteristic of a syllable

- weak syllable - the peak of the syllable is:
* schwa
* I or i:
* u or u:
* syllabic consonant

- strong syllable - the peak is any vowel but not "schwa" (see the rules for spelling x pronunciation Skaličková)
- general characteristic - weak syllable tends to be shorter, less loud and is not stressed
- peak of a weak syllable - spelling:
* schwa - examples: a- material, intimate, o- today
r- participate, forget,
* I or i: - examples: easy, valley
* u - very rare, only in unstressed words "you", "to", "into",
"do"
or in words like "evacuation", "influenza" where there is
not a diphtong u+schwa but sequence u+e.
* syllabic consonant - cattle, struggle, bottle
- happen, seven, often
- history

see Roach pg.67 - 84

Handout No.8

Stress in simple words

stress - can be observed in syllables, refers to the force or effort that was put into pronunciation of particular syllable. Distinction is described as stressed or unstressed. The stressed
syllable is more prominent than the other one.

* phonetically it is a combination of several variables: loudness, length, pitch, quality out of which the pitch and length are the most important

* phonologically its function is to highlight a particular syllable in context of a) word - "word stress" or "lexical stress"
b) sentence - "sentence stress" or "contrastive stress"
- example of a)blackbird x blackbird, record x record
b) I came yesterday. (you didn´t)

* intensity of the stress is described usually in "degrees"
with further word description: 1- primary
2- secondary
3- tertiary
4- weak

accent - similar notion, widely used for those features in man´s pronunciation that identify where is the speaker from but not only regionally but also socially. (Regional accents "Manchester", "Slavic accent", "American".., social accents ­ "Queen´s English", "BBC English")
- accents describe pronunciation while dialects refer to pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
- sometimes the word accent is used in the same meaning as "sentence stress"

Placement of stress in simple words

Rules:
a) one syllable words - in isolated position - primary stress
b) two syllable words
* verbs - stress on the first: if the final syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no) final consonant ++ or if the final
slb contains "eu"
- stress on the second: if the final syllable contains a long vowel of diphtong, or if it ends with more than one consonant

* adjectives - the same

* nouns - stress on the first: if the second syllable contains a short vowel
- stress on the second: all other cases

c) three syllable words
* verbs - stress on the third: if the final syllable contains a long vowel, or diphtong, or ends with more than one consonant

- stress on the penultimate syllable: if the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant

* nouns - stress on the first syllable: if the final slb. contains a short vowel and the middle slb. contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonants

- stress on the second slb.: if the second slb. contains a long vowel of diphthong or if it ends with more than one consonant

* adjectives - similar rules as nouns

+++ General feature - in three slb. nouns with the stress on the
first slb. we can often find secondary stress on the last slb.

examples: 2 slb. words: verbs:
1st. slb.+++ enter, envy - ente, envi
+++ open, equal - eupen, i:kwel
2nd. slb.+++ apply, arrive - eplai, eraiv
+++ attract, assist - etraekt,esist
adjectives
1st. +++ lovely - lavli, even - i:vn, hollow - holeu
2nd. +++ divine - divain, correct - kerekt, allive - elaiv
nouns
1st. +++ money - mani, product - prodakt, larynx - laerinks
2nd. +++ estate - isteit, balloon - belu:n, disign - dizain

3 slb. words: verbs
2nd. +++ encouter - inkaunte, derermine - dite:min
3rd. +++ entertain - entetein, resurrect - rezerekt
nouns
1st. +++ intellect - intelekt, marigold - maerigeuld
+++ stalactite - staelektait
2nd. +++ mimosa - mimeuze, disaster - diza:ste, potato - peteiteu
+++ synopsis - sinopsis

More complex rules for loan words.


Handout No.9

Stress in complex words (CXW)

- simple words - words, that can consist of variable number of
slbs., but have only one stem and are not affix words.
- complex words - 1) words, th