Vypisky

A Resurgence of Nationalism
In 1817 , there was a question, whether the territory of Missouri should be admitted to the Union as a free or slaveholding state and whether the vast new Western regions will be controlled by the North or South.
Economic progress of transportation and communication seemd to link the nation more together. The nationalism and nation´s rising stature in the word was thanks to judicial decisions of JOHN MARSHALL´s Supreme Court, economic growth and JAMES MONROE´s foreign policy.
The states were held together in the 1820s by the mystic bond of union , as Abrahan Lincoln described. The memory of the Revolution, the veneration of the Constitution, the sense that America had a special destiny in the world led to a vibrant, even romantic patriotism. Every 4th of July remained them of their independence. 4th of July 1826 Jefferson and Adams died within hours.

America´s Economic Revolution
In 1920s, 1930s the period of dramatic economical growth began. Improvement of transportion and expanding business created a national market economy. Each area of the country concentrated on certain type of goods. ...South concentraced mostly on cotton, North to develope new factory system to begin an industrial revolution. The American population spread to far territory, a transportation revolution was giving marchents access to new markets and raw materials. New technological advances gave industry new levels of activity. In the 1820s there was an ethic of growth based on a commitment to hard work, individual initiative and ambition.

The Population 1820 - 1840
Rapid increase, migration to the West, movement to towns and cities. The population doubled every 25 years. (1840...17,000,000). The blacks increased more slowly than whites. After 1808 , the importation of slaves became illegal. (1840...1 black to 5 whites). It was a result of blacks high death rate, not low birth rate and poverty in which all blacks lived. Several epidemies: cholera plague in 1832 . Public health improved, mortality rate slowly declined and birth rate got higher. The women in the 1840s could expect to see their children live to maturity. Immigration during the long war in Europe was low, then grew and in 1837 it reached to 80,000.
Since the US exported more than imported, they took immigrants on the ships returning from Europe.... cheap, they did not have to sell their services, system of servitude disappeared after the Panic of 1819.
Until 1830s immigrants were usually from Great Britain or Northern Ireland. Later also immigrants from Southern (catholic) Ireland. The newcomers were generally welcomed in US. ...source of labour for building canals, railroads, ships, docks...But the Irish, as Roman Catholics, excited Protestant prejudices in some communities. F.B.MORSE, inventor of the telegraph wrote Foreign Conspiracy .
The Northwest and Southwest grew much more rapidly, some of the seaboard states suffered a loss of human resources, many villages depopulated as the people searched for life that Appalachians efforded. Many people also moved to cities and towns and new ones were settled. In 1840 1 in 12 lived in 8,000 populated town.
The rise of NYC was phenomenal. The growth was based on its superior natural harbor and commercial and political decisions following the War of 1812, when british chose it as place to dump their manufactured goods and it become nation´s leading center for imports...also auction sales. In 1816 the first packet line with regularly monthly sailing between US and England was in NYC. Erie Canal gave the city unrivaled access to the interior.

The Canal Age
The turnpike "dálnice" era..1790 - 1830 constructed important network roads, linked the nation together, opened access to new markets and sources of material. In 1820s, 1830s began the construction of water routes .
Rivers in Mississippi and Ohio became useful. Steamboats grew in number and improved design. The triple-decked boats carried many passangers. Goods among states were transported on the boats, but neither western farmers nor eastern merchants were satisfied with this pattern of trade. Farmers could get better prices of srops to send them directly, not by roundabout river-sea route. The highways across the mountains such as the Philadelphia-Pittsburgh turnpike or the National Road would be a solution. But the transport by horses was slow and horses could not carry high weith. Water routs would be better.
Canal building was a task too expensive for private enterprise. The job fell to the various states. NY was the first to act.... Hudson River + Lake Erie...Erie Canal, won the debate if it is practical after DE WITT CLINTON became governor in 1817. It was the greatest construction American project. It was a work of self-made engineers. Design of the canal: it was a ditch, 40 feet wide, 4 feet deep, with towpaths along the banks for the horses or mules that were to draw teh canal boats. It early producted a financial success as well. It was opened in October 1825 with huge celebrations. Trafic was so heavy that it needed reparation after 7 years of use.
Another channels were built: Champlain Canal ..1822, connected Lake Champlain +the Hudson River .
Ohio and Indiana provided water connection of Lake Erie and the Ohio River.....
By way of the Great Lakes it was possible to go by water from NY to Chicago. After opening of Erie Canal, shipping on the Great Lakes increased rapidly. The result was the stimulation ot the settlement of the Northwest, which became easier for migrants to make the westward journey and establish their farms to ship their produce to markets. NYC benefited most of all nearby Erie´s cities....almoust all goods went through NY.
Another cities were alarmed of NY´s success and realised they have to fing oways of tapping the Western market. Boston was blocked by Berkshire Mountains, Philadelphia by Alleghtny Mountains. In 1834 Pennsylvania invested in a system of waterways and railways to connect Philadelphia and Pittsburg, but it was a financial and technological failure. And others tried similar thing, but failed. None of these rivals of NY did canals provide a satisfactory way to the West.

The Early Railroads
In 1820s,1830s railroads played a secondary role in the nation´s transportation system. By the Civil it led to a great surge of railroad building, which linked the nation together as no previous transport system before. Railroads became the primary transportation and remained so until the creation of the interstate highway system in the 20th century.
One of the inovations was the invention of railroad tracks, another was the employment of steampowered locomotives and operation of trains as public carriers of passengers and freight. (Before in the early 1800s rails pushed by men or animals). In 1804 both English and US investors experimented with steam engines...1820 JOHN STEVENS ran a locomotive and cars around a circular track and in 1825 the Stockton and Darlington Railroad in England started to operate with steam power. In 1826 a group of NYers obtained a charter for the Mohawk and Hudson and 5 years later began running trains. The first company to begin the actual operation was the Baltimore and Ohio CHARLES CARROLL OF CARROLLTON started the work in a ceremony on 4th of July 1828 . The first steam powered locomotive was designed by PETER COOPER. Also the Mississippi Valley became the scene of railroad building. But the real railroad system still did not exist in 1830s, the limes were short and mostly served to connect water routes to another supplement water transportation, and also 2 lines connected the tracks might deffer in gauge and cars from one line did not fit in the other one.
The roadbeds were improved through the introduction of heavier iron, Americans began to produce steam locomotives, more flexible and powerful then imported ones from Europe. After 1840 were also the passengers cars redesigned.
Railroads had the advantages of speed and yearround operation...canals closed for the winter, and could be located almoust anywhere. The future belonged to the towns and cities along the path of the iron horse.

The Expansion of Business
1820s, 1830s...result of the growth in population and improvements in the means of transportation. New generation... whaling industry . ...source of spermacety "tuk z vorvaňe" for candels, oil for lamps, whalebone for corset stays "šněrovačka".
The ice industry ....in 1830s the New England ice harvest found a ready market in Northern cities, on Southern plantations.
Retail distribution of goods became more systematic. Stores specializing in groceries, dry goods, hardware, other lines appeared in larger cities. Smaller towns depended on the general stores. Many costumers living remote from any store welcomed visits of peddlers coming on food or by horse.
Most business continued to be operated by individuals or partnerships operating on a limited scale. The dominanting figures were the great merchant capitalists controlling much of the big business., they organeized certain industries on the putting-out system ..providing materials for individual craftsmen, directing the work, selling the finished product.
In the largest enterprises the indivedual merchant capitalist gave way before the advance of the corporation, which had the advantage of combining the resources of a large number of shareholders. By 1830s states were beginning to pass general incorpporation lawy. A group could now secure a charter merely by paying a fee.
Corporations made possible the accumulation of larger and larger amounts of capital for manufacturing enterprises as well as for banks, turnpikes and railroad companies.The small capitals came from profit of the trade and dependet on it.
Credit mechanism remaineg underdeveloped in the early 19th century . The government was permitted to issue currency, but it issued no paper, only gold and silver coins. The amout of official currendy was too smal to support the demand for credit. Under the pressure of corporate promoters, many banks issued large quantities of bank notes to provide capital for expanding business ventures...bank failures were frequent and bank deposits insecured.

The Rise of the Factory
In mid-19th century , America: the rise of factory manufacturing . In 1820s, 1830s the factory system established itself as an integral part of the national economy. Before the War of 1812, many manufactureng took place within individaally operated workshops. Most goods produced by land and sold in local markets. The change came first in the New England textile industry, where some farsighted enterpreneurs began to make use of the region´s extensive waterpower and of the new machines to bring tewtile operations together under one single roof...this factory system spread in the 1820s .Spining and weaving were principal means of producing cloth, but factories made serious inroads into the old proces of production.
Shoe industry...most work done by hand, but men and women started to specialize on various tasks in production. The future of industry was in factories producting large numbers of identical shoes in ungraded size and without distinction as to rights and lefts. First new factories...eastern Massechusetts.
By 1830s manufacturing spread to another industries. American industry relied on technology. Machine technology advanced most rapidly in US, then in any other country, and by the end of 1830s Europeans traveled to US to learn new technologies.

Men and Women at work
1820s, 1830s , labor came privately from the native population, 90% of American population still lived and worked on farms, city residents were just few. Many urban laboures had own small companies and were not looking for a factory job.
The transformation of American agriculture in 19th century produced new industrial labour... improvement of transportation, machinery, opening new farmlands in the Midwest increased production of food...import to other regions and poor regions did not need to grow food and had industrial labour.
2 systems to bring labour to the textile mills : 1. Mid-Atlantic states + New England..brought whole families from the farm to the mill, parents and children, even small worked together tending the looms
2, Massechusetts..young daughters of farmers = the Lowell or Waltham system, after the factory towns which it first emerged...worked a few years, then got married and brought up children.
Conditions of working children were much better than in England, where also women worked in terrible conditions. The Lowell workers were well fed, in clean boardinghouses, attending church regularly. They had free time enough even to publish monthly magazine.. the Lowell Offering. But still many workers coming from farms found it traumatic. Many women suffered from loneliness and disorientation. The long hours were same as on the farms, but the work was unvarying, but this work in mill was the only one opened for women, they could not became sailors e.g., because it was unthinkable.
It was difficult for companies to keep the high conditions for workers and the hours of work lenghtened, and conditions were worse. In 1834 mill girls in Lowell organized a union.. The Factory Girls Association , which staged a strike to protest a 25% wage cut. 1836 they struck again against a rent increased in the boardinghouses. They both failed and destroyed organization in 1837. 1845 led by SARAH BAGLEY created The Female Labor Reform Association ...improvements of conditions + 10 hours a day work. By the time new labor ... imigrants and girls were moving to another jobs: teaching, domestic service...
Imigrants were a cheap labor, had a far worse conditions.Construction gangs (Irish) performed unskilled heavy work in intolerable conditions, they did not even earn enough to support the family, but they were unskilled.
1840s , the Irish workers predominated in the New England textile mills, less money, worse conditions than native women, mid-1840s the town of Lowell became a squalid slum "špinavý brloch". Also skilled artisant whose trades the factories were replacing suffered from the new factory system. The competition was increasing and in the early 19th century, craftsmen began to form organizations..American labor unions, to protect their positions.In 1790s, printers and cordwainers took a lead.
The cordwainers...makers of high-quality shoes, suffered from the competition. During the 1820s, 1830s, the craft societies began to combine on a city-wide basis and set up central organizations known as trade unions . In 1834, delegates from 6 cities founded the National Trades´Union and in 1836, the printers and the cordwainers set up their own national craft unions. This early labor movement soon collapsed.



Democracy in America
When the French aristocrat ALEWIS DE TOCQUEVILLE visited the US in 1831,one feature of American society struck him as "fundamental": the general equality of condition among the people. The government of democracy, he wrote in his classic study Democracy in America , brings the notion of political rights to the level of the humblest citizens, just as the dissemination of wealth brings the norion of property within the reach of all the members of the community.
Individualism , he feared, would create a large class od dependent workers and a small group of new aristocrats.
Some Americans insisted, that the countries priority must be to establish order and a clear system of authority. Others, that greatest danger was privilege and that society´s goal should be to eliminate the favored status of powerful elites and make opportunity more widely available.The advocates of this latter vision seized control of the federal government in 1829 with the inauguration of ANDREW JACKSON.
Jackson and his followers were not egalitarians, did not try to stop slavery, accepted neccessity of ecomonic inequality and social gradation.
The democratization of government was permeated with teh rhetoric of equality and aroused the excitement of working people.

The Advent of Mass Politics
March 4, 1829 , thousands of Americans from all regions crowded before teh Capitol of Washington DC, to witness the inauguration of Andrew Jackson. They followed their hero to the White House ...General Jackson was their own President, wrote Amos Kendall. Some other people were disgusted as Justice of the Supreme Court Joseph Story. Both were correct. In political life this era well earned its title the age of the common man .

President of the Common Man
Jackson was no democratic philosopher, he too expressed a district theory of democracy..government should offer equal protection and equal benefits to all people. His first target was the personnel procedures of teh federal government.Offices belonged to the people, not to the entrenched officeholders....WILLIAM MARCY OF NY "to the victors belong the spoils ."
During his 8 years in presidency he removed 1/5 of federal officers. He adopted another instrument of democratic politics: the national nominating convention. ....presidential candidates selected by congressional caucus. The acceptance of the spoils system and the creation of the political convention extent. It served to limit the power of entrenched elites - permanent officeholders and the exclusive party cauces.Delegates to national conventions were often members of local party elites. Political opportunity within the party was expanding, but within limits.

The Expanding Electorate
Jacksonian politics transfered power to the population, the era was a true mass electorate emerged. The expansion of the franchise began in Ohio, continued in West which adopted constitutions that garanteed all white males right to vote and permitted all voters the right to hold public office, other states soon adopted it as well, because people started moving to West.1820 DANIEL WEBSTER one of the conservative delegates, opposed democratic changes on the grounds that power naturally and necessarily follows property, he could not prevent the reform, but the new constitution requďred that every voter be a taxpayer and the governor will be the owner of considerable real estate. It was the forces of democratization that prevailed in the states.
In the NY convention of 1821, conservatives led by CHANCELLOR JAMES KENT said that poor people should have less rights than the rich ones, reformers denied it according to the Declaration of Independence and the property qualification was abolished.
The wave of state reforms was peaceful, but not in Rhode Island, where more than 1/2 of males fisqualified as voters. This conservative legislature blocked all efforts at reform. In 1840 THOMAS L. DORR and his followers "the peoples party" ...a popular vote, the legislature refused to acccept the Dorr constitution. The Dorrites behun to set up the new government with Dorr as governor, 1842 two governments in Rhode Island. The Dorr rebellion failed, Dorr imprisoned, but the episode helped to draft a new constitution.
In South democratization moved slowly, the planters and politicians of the older countries continued to dominate the state governments. Free blacks could not vote anywhere in the south, hardly in the north, 1838 prohibited. Women could not vote anywhere. Despite it the number of voters increased more rapidly than the population. Early 19th century trend was the change in the method of choosing presidential electors and the increase in population participation in the process. It was a result of heightening of interest in politics and strengthening of party organization.

The Legitimation of Party
1820s, 1830s institutionalized parties were a desirable part of the political process, they were essential to democracy. Idea of party system occured first in NY.... MARTIN VAN BUREN..Bucktails, Albany Regency. after 1812 challenged the political oligarchy led by teh aristocratic governor DE WITT CLINTON. The way he posed the challenge was new. Refuting the traditional view of a political party as undemocratic, only an institutionalied party, based in the populace at large, could ensure genuine democracy. The loyality to the party was the most important thing. The principal goal of the leadership was the preservation of the party as an institution. It had to have an opposition. This idea was soon introduced in other countries. 1830s, Pennsylvania...2 parties system.

Our Federal Union
ANDREW JACKSON won elections with no clearly articulated program, his followers... Democrats (no longer Democratic Republicans) had interests so diverse that a statement of precise aims would have alienated many of them at the outset.Jackson believed the federal government should work on behalf of common people, eliminationg the privileges of established elites...that meant reducing the functions of government produce a restriction of opportunity to those favored few with political connections. He also believed to idential leadership, and was strongly committed to the preservation of the Union. His vice president was JOHN C. CALHOUN...a dangerous new constitution theory.. nullification .

Calhoun and Nullification
South California cotton plants were exhausted and they became poor, many Californians blamed troubles on the tariff of abominations of 1828 ., which highed prices on food they could not produce themselves, some Californians were ready to consider secession, which was a challenge for Clhoun to make a future for himself in national politics. He worked out the action that would stop the short of secession. ...teory to just