Vypisky

ify state resistance to the tariff law. Following Madison and Jefferson´s Resolutions of 1798-1799 began with sovereignty , the ultimate source of power, lay in the states... the people of a state could hold a convention which could declare the federal law null and void within the state. The law would remain inoperative until 3/4 of the states ratified an amendment to the Constitution. The nullifying state would then submit to the will of the nation or could secede from Union....legislature of S.Carolina published in 1828 The South Carolina Espositon and Protest. But Calhoun did not have as much influence in the new administration as he had hoped.

The Rise of Van Buren
Van Buren thanks his skillful maneuvering became senator of US from 1820-1828 , made himself the party boss of his state by organizing and leading the Albany Regency, the Democratic machine of NY, became one of the most ardent of Jacksonians, had a reputation as a political wizard "čaroděj ". His nicknames were "the Sage of Kinderhook, the Little Magician, the Red Fox." Van Buren went to Washington in 1829 when Jackson called him to head the new cabinet as secretary of state. Jackson´s cabinet contained talents as known as Kitchen Cabinet .(ISAAC HILL, AMOS KENDALL, FRANCIS P. BLAIR) Jackson and Van Buren became friends.
PEGGY O´ NEALE a married daughter of a Washington tavern keeper, friend of ANDREW JACKSON AND JOHN H. EATON. Altough she had 2 children with her husband a navy purser, soon rumous she is familiar with Eaton. 1828 her husband died and she married Eaton, Jackson named him secretary of war, Mrs. Eaton became cabinet wife.The rest of cabinet wives refused her and Jackson was furious and demanded respect for her.
1831 Jackson had settled on Van Buren as his choice to succeed him in the White House . Calhoun´s dreams of the presidency vanished.

The Webster-Hayne Debate
A great debate emerged on the nature of the Constirution that revealed the gulf between Jackson and Calhoun. 1830 the controversy grew out of a seemingly routine Senate discussion of federal policy toward the public lands in the West.Senator THOMAS HART BENTON of Missouri charged that the proposal to stoop land sales was intended to keep New England workers from going West and would serve to choke off the growth and prosperity of the frontier.
ROBERT Y. HAYNE, senator of S.Carolina took up the argument after Benton. Hayne suggested in his speech before the Senate that S. and W. were both victims of the tyranny of the Northeast.
DANIEL WEBSTER refering to the tariff of 1816, said, that New England was not responsible for the protectionist policy. He spoke gravely of disunionists and disunionism in South Carolina. He was challenging Hayne to a debateon the issue of states´rights versus national power. Hayne was coached by Calhoun. Webster was for union and constitution as it is, made by people, made for people. "Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable!"
President Jackson: "Our Federal Union - It must be preserved." Jackson stand on the side of Van Buren against Calhoun.

The Nullification Crisis
1832 South California precipitated a crisis. Congres enacted a new tariff which offered them virtually no relief. Californians were ready to revolt. Having lost confidence of Jackson, Calhoun was an open advocate of nullification. The question whether to nullify the tarif act was the leading issue in the state elections of 1832, result was the ringing victory for nullifiers, their opponers were Unionists.
The new elected legislature called for the election of delegates to a state convention. The convention voted to declare null and void the tariffs of 1828, 1832 and to forbid the collection of duties within the state. They elected Hayne governor of the state, Calhoun to replace Hayne as senator. Calhoun resigned the vice presidency to defend his stateś position in the Senate. Jackson was outraged, insisted that nullification was treason and that its adherents were traitors.Cooperating closely with the Unionists of S Carolina, he strenghten the federal forts, ordering GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT to Charleston.
1833, the president asked Congress for new authority to handle the crisis. His followers introduced the force bill authorizing him to use the army and navy.1833 Calhoun in the Senate introduced a set of resolutions on the constitutional compact . Webster dismissed secession as a revolutionary but not a constitutional right, denounced nullification as no right at all. The nullifiers, he said, rejected the first great principle of all republican liberty; that is , that the majority must govern.
Not a single state had come to S. Carolina´s support. Calhoun was saved by the intervention of the Great Pacificator , HENRY CLAY, elected to the Senate. Clay devised a compromise, the tariff would be lowered year after year until 1842 until it would reach the same level as in 1816. The compromise and the force bill passed on the same day, March 1, 1833.
In S.Carolina, the convention adopted a new ordinance nullifying the force act, it was purely symbolic. Calhoun got a lesson...No state could assert and maintain its rights by independent action.

Jackson and State´s Rights
Jackson was not an opponent of the rights of the states. His new idea was none but constitutional undertakings should be pursued by the federal government.
The Maysville Road Bill of 1830 prompted the most significant of Jackson´s vetoes. The bill authorized the government to buy stock in a private company so as to provide a federal subsidy for the construction of a turnpike. Earlier in 1822, President Monroe declared in a veto message, that the federal government should suport only improvements that were of general importance. Now, with Van Buren´s assistence, Jackson prepared a veto message based on similar grounds. The Maysville veto was not popular in the West, where a better transportation was a never-ending demand. Jackson´s policies used federal power to remove all Indian tribes from the areas of white settlements.

The Removal of the Indians
Jackson wanted to move Indians West, beyond the Mississippi, out of the way of expanding white settlements. 18th century, many whites had considered Indians noble savages, people without any civilization but with ingerent dignity, that made civilization possible among them. In the first decades of 19th century this philanthropic attitude lead to whites coming to view Native Americans as savages , as uncivilizable. The idea of savage Indians made people think, they should live separately from them. White Westerners wanted to live separately to avoid conflicts and violence. The tribes posessed valuable acreage, which whites wanted.
The last battle in 1831-32 between an alliance of Sauk or Sac and Fox Indians under the fabled and now aged warrior Black Hawk and white settlers in Illinois. An earlier treaty had ceded tribal lands in Illinois to the US, but Black Hawk refused to recognize the legality of the agreement. White settlers in the region feared that the resettlement was the beginning og a substantial invasion and assembled the Illinois state militia and federal troops to repel the invaders = The Black Hawk War. The Sauks and Foxes defeated, retreated to Iowa (Abraham Lincoln captain fo the militia.)
Troubles were the remaining indian tribes of the South.... 5 civilized tribes : Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw...succesfull economies. The Cherokees in Georgia had sophisticated culture, own language and a formal constitution which created an independent Cherokee Nation.Some whites wanted them to retain their eastern landes.
Federal government worked steadily to negotiate treaties with the Southern Indians that would remove them to W and open their lands for white settlements. The legislatures in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi began extending their law over the tribes remaining in their states. They received assistance in these efforts from Congress, which in 1830 passed the Femoval Act (with Jacksonś approval)...tribes relocated to West. The Southern tribes faced a combination of pressure from the state and federal governments, most tribes did not resist, ceded lands for token payments.
In Georgia, Cherokees tried to stop the white encroachments by appealing to the Supreme Court . The president supported Georgia´s efforts to remove the Cherokees before the Court decision. They had to leave for 5,000,000 dolars to the Mississippi, great majority of them refused to leave. Jackson sent army to drive them westwards at bayonet point. Most of them forced trek to Oklahoma, thousands perished before reaching the destination...route called The Trail Where They Cried, The Trail of Tears .
Between 1830-1838 all the 5 civilized tribes were locate to the Indian Territory ..created by Indian Intercourse Act of 1834, which later became Oklahoma. They were bordered on the west by what Lewis and Clark and Stephen H. Long christened the Great American Desert .
Only the Seminoles in Florida managed to resist the pressure. But later most moved West, minority under chieftain OSCEOLA, refused and in 1835 were defending their land. The Seminole War dragged on for years. Jackson sent troops to Florida, but the Seminoles with their black associates were masters of guerrilla warfare in the jungly Everglades. In 1842 , the government of abandoned the war.The relocation of the Seminoles was never complete.
By the end of 1830s, Indian societies were removed to West. They lived, divided by tribe into a series of sharply defined reservations, in a territory surrounded by a string of US forts to keep them in, in a region whose climate and topography bore little relation to anything they had known before.














The North and the South: Diverging Societies
Mid19th century, Americans believed they are the nation dained by God, their Union represented a geacon of liberty and stability, which should be a model for rest of the world. In fact, they were not truly a nation, but a highly decentralized confederation of states, many of which had little in common.
They encountered a series of major obstacles, one became so powerful that soon threatenet to tear the nation asart: sectionalism. In 1840s, 1850s sectionalism changed its nature and intensity. There were now 4 distinct regions: SE..plantation system, declining economic
SW....booming frontierlike region, expanding cotton economy.
NE..industrial and commercial economy, increasing density of population
NW..expanding agricultural region.
Americans saw their culture divided into the North and the South. The biggest difference was in the labor systems of the sections. The South´s economy was expanding into new areas of SW, slavery was primary source of labor. The NE, NW had free-labor economy, a modern diversified economy developed with an important manufacturing sector, flourishing commercial life, expanding range of urban services. The South was becoming isolated from North, dependent on North´s manufacturing goods. It became a colonial appendage "přívěsek" of the powerful regions to the north. The Union disrupted.

The Developing North
1840s, 1850s rapid development of the economy and society of the Northeast, urban centers grew rapidly, class division more visible, growing urban middle class became an important factor in American societa. Industrial labor expanded rapidly....new working class. Northe was developing a complex, modern society.

Northeastern Industry
For the first time, the value of manufactured goods was equal to that of agricultural products. Even the most highly developed industries showed qualities of immaturity and were far from the production levels they would later attain. Fine items continued to be imported from England. The woolen industry suffered from the lack of raw wool and could not satisfy home market. The machine tools in 1840s were already better than the European ones. The principle of interchangeable parts, first applied by ELI WHITNEY, SIMEON NORTH was introduced into another industries. Coal replacing wood as an industrial fuel, also was used as generate power in steam engines. The new power source made possible to locate mills away from running steams.
The great technical advances owed much to American investors. In 1839 , CHARLES GOODYEAR (N.Eng.)discovered a method of vulcanizing rubber. In 1846, ELIAS HOWE (Mass.)constructed a sewing machine, ISAAC SINGER improved it and the Howe-Singer machine was producing ready-to-wear clothing. (uniforms for the Civil War)
First for economy were dominant merchant capitalists, who remained figures of importance in 1840s. In NY, Philadelphia and Bostont important mercantile groups operated shipping lines to Southern ports, or dispatched fleets of trading vessels to the ports of Europe and Orient. Many of them were the famous clippers , the most beautiful and fastest sailing ships afloat.
Merchant capitalism was entering a state of decline by teh middle of the century. American merchants in the 1850s saw much of their carrying trade fall into the hands of British competitors. Foreign competition was not the cause of decline, the cause was the rise of the factory system in the US. Merchants saw better opportunities in manufacturing than trade and invested rather to factories.
In 1840s companies stopped to be owned by families and particulary in the textil industry the corporate form of organization was spreading rapidly. Ownership of American enterprise was moving away from families to modern form: many stockholders, each owning a relatively small proportion of the total.The discovery of new forms of financing was a crucial factor in the advancement of industrialization. Industrial capitalists became the new ruling class.

Transportation and Communications
Adequate transportation system needed. In 1830s, most goods exchanged between NE, NW on the Erie Canal, after 1840 , railroads supplanted canals and all other modes of transport. An unparalleled burst of railroad construction occurred in the 1850s. The amount of trackage tripled in 10 years. NE developed the most comprehensive and efficient system. One line ran fron Hannibal to St. Joseph on the Missouri River, another from St. Louis to Kansas City. The absence of the major railroad system became another factor isolating the South from the rest of the nation.
A new feature in railroad development was the trend toward the consolidation of short lines into trunk lines. Chicago was the rail center of the West. By lessening the dependence of the West on the Mississippi, the railroads helped weaken further the connection berween the NW and the South.
Capital to finance the railroda boom came from private American investors, railroad companies borrowed sums from abroad governments, states, countries, cities..
In 1850, Senathor STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS of Illinois persuaded Congress to grant federal lands to the state of Illinois Central, Illinois transfered the land to the railroad company to build lines in the state.
Facilitating the operation of teh railroads was important technological innovation: teh magnetic telegraph. It permitted communication between distant cities, tying the nation together. The lines were far more extensive in the North than in the South.The telegraph had burst into American life in 1844, when SAMUEL F. B. MORSE succeeded in transmitting from Baltimore to Washington teh news of JAMES K. POLK´ s nomination of the presidency. 1860 the Pacific telegraph between NY and S Francisco.
New form of journalism served to draw communities together into a common communications system. In 1846, RICHARD HOE invented the steam cylinder rotary press..print newspaper rapidly and cheaply possible. IN 1846, the Associated Press organised to cooperative news gathering by wire. HORACE GREELEY´ s Tribune , JAMES GORDOM BENNET¨s Herald , HENRY J. RAYMOND´s Times published in NY. In 1840s, 1850s the journalism helped to feed the fires of sectional discord. Most of the major magazines and newspapers were in the North.

Cities and Immigrants
The biggest change in the nature of NE society was the growing size of cities. 1840 -1860 NY population from 312,000 - 805,000. By 1860 , 26% of the population of the free states lived in towns and cities. The enlarged urban population was a reflection of the growth of the narional population as a whole and also a result of the flow of people into the cities from two sources in particular: the native farming classes of NE , forced off their lands by Western companies; immigration from Europe . They came mostly from Ireland 45% and Germany 20%, also E, Fr, I, Pl, Holland and Scandinavia. Several factors accounted for the prevalence of immigrants from Ireland and Germany: poverty caused by economic dislocations of the industrial revolution, famines resulting from the failure of the potato and other crops, dislike of English rule by teh Irish, collapse of the liberal revolution of 1848 in Germany.
Irish settled in Eastern cities.. the ranks of unskilled labours. Germans in NW, became farmers or business in W towns. German arrived with some money and were families or single men, Irish not and were single women.

The Rise of Nativism
The new foreign-borners joined political life. In 1848 in Wisconsin became voters . Other states followed. Many politicians saw them as their support, other were alarmed, which caused the first important organized nativist movements in American history.
Some nativists argued immigrants are mentally and physically defective, corrupted politics by selling their votes. Others that their steal jobs from the native work force. Prejudices emerged secret societies to combat the alien menace . Most of them in the NE. First was the Native American Association in 1837, 1845 Native American Party formed in Philadelphia. Many of the nativist groups combined in 1850 to form the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. It endorsed a list of demands included banning Catholics or aliens from holding public office, more restrictive naturalization laws, literacy tests for voting. The order adopted a strict code of secrecy and the secret password used in lodges across the country I know nothing. Members became known as Know-Nothings . ..after election of 1852 they created a new political organization called American Party . 1854 they power declined.

Labor in the Northeast
Immigration from abroad and from farms provided a labor force. In NE factories remained small and for the most part impermanent. By 1840s, permanent laboring class emerged. Workers were left to their own devices, to find accomodation in towns rapidly growing up. Factories were becoming large, noisy, often dangerous place to work, 12/14 working hours a day, wages declining. Workers tried to persuade state legislature to pass laws setting a mawimum workday. No success. Only New Hampshire in 1847 , Pennsalvania 1848 10 hours law , unless the workers agreed to an express contract for more time job. Massechusetts, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania passed laws regulating child labor, results were minimal. In 1842 the supreme court of Massechusetts in Commonwealth v. Hunt declared that unions were lawful organizations and the strike was a lawful weapon . Other states followed it.
Organizations among workers were usually occurred at the local level and among limited groups of skilled workers. Their primary purpose was to protect the favored position of their members in the labor force by restricting admission to the skilled trades. 1830s a few local craft unions formed national organizations.. 1852 the National Typographical Union , 1853 the Stone Cutters , 1854 the Hat Finishers , the Molders, the Machinists in 1859.They excluded women and women established women´s protective unions by the 1850s.
The working class was rather passive in 1840s, 1850s in America. In England, workers were creating widespread social turmoil and helping to transform the nation´s political structure.
Manufactures did not have problem to replace striking workers by cheaper immigrants. Ethnic division and tensions often caused working-class resentments.

Wealth and Mobility
The commercial and industrial growth increased national wealth and the average income of the American peoplein 1840s, 1850s. But wealth had always been unequally distributed in the US. In 1860, 5 % of families possessed more than 50% of the wealth. However the relative economic position of American workers was declining, the absolute living standard of most laborers was improving. Life was better for factory workers, than on the farms or in the European societies from which people migrated.
There was also a significant amount of mobility within the working class. Opportunities for social mobility , for working one´sway up the economic ladder, were limited, but existed. That supported the dreams.
More important was the geological mobility . America had a huge expanse of settlement for the first time. The dream of saving money and moving out to the frontier called safety valve by the historican FREDERIC JACKSON TURNER. Far more frequent was the movement of laborers from one industrial town to another.
Another safety valve "ulita" for working class discontent was politics.

Women and the "Cult of Domesticity"
The new industrializing society of N produced profound changes in the nature and fun