Vypisky

ction of the family. At the heart of the transformation was the shift of income-earning work out of the home and into the shop, mill, or factory. End of the era of family work.
Among the farming population family remained a unit of joint economic activity, now agricultural work became more commercialized. Farm owners started to rely on hired male workers and farm women tended to work increasingly at domestic tasks, which removet them from the principal income-producing activities of the farm....lower economic status. In cities was the erosion of traditional economic function of family more significant. A sharp distinction began to emerge between the public world of th workplace...work of commerce and industry..and the private world of the family.. .housekeeping, child rearing. There was also emergence of distinctions between the social roles of men and women. Women were long denied many legal and political rights, within the family the husband and father ruled, wife bowed to his demands and desires. Even divorce could be from men side and he got the children! Women had less acces into political life, business, education even in mid-19th century.
Oberlin in Ohio ...1st college in America to accept women students 1837 . Mount Holyoke in Massachusetts by MARY LYON in 1837.
In the middle-class family of the new industrial society, husband was the principal, only income producer, wife expected to remain in the home to engage domestic activies. Women came to be seen as guardians of the domestic virtues, their role of mothers and wives seemed more central to the family than in past.They learned to place a high value on keeping clean, comfortable and well-appointed home, dressing elegantly. Women began to develope a distinctive female culture. Own social networks..female clubs and associations, literature began to emerge among middle-class women. Romantic novels mostly, women´s magazine Godey´s Lady´s Book 1837 by SARAH HALE focused on fashion, shopping, homemaking advice...
The inceasing isolation of women from the public world seems to be a form of oppression and discrimination. Responsibilities of women were to provide religious and moral instruction to their children and to counterbalance the acquisitive, secular impulses of their husbands. ...cult of domesticity .
Also jobs as teachers or nurses needed women for the female qualities, it made them important within home. Unmarried women depended on generosity of relatives.
Poor women had to work in factories and sometimes were employed in middle-class homes. Domestic service became one of the most frequent sources of female employment.
Accompanying the changing economic function of the family was a decline in the birth rate. There was also a significant rise in abortions "potrat" , which determined 20 % of all pregnancies in 1850s and increasing abstinence.
In North, where the economy was becoming increasingly organited, the idea of making careful decisions about vearing children was appeal.

Northeastern Agriculture
1840... decline of agriculture, farmers could not deal with richer soil of NW. Some farmers dealt with it moving West and establishing new farms, other moved to mill towns and became laborers. As the Eastern urban centers increased in population, many farmers furned to the task supplying food to the city masses. They profited in truck gardening (vegetables) or fruit raising. NY..apple production, rise of cities stimulated rise of dairy farming .."mléčná výroba". NE led the production of hay. But many parts of NE still declined.

The Old Northwest (now the Midwest)
Steady industrial growth. Along the southern shore of Lake Erie was a flourishing industrial and commercial area of which Cleveland was the center. Ohio River Valley was also man. region. Chicago..meat-packing industry. The most important industrial products of W: farm machinery, flour, meat, destilled whiskey, leather and wooden goods. Industry here was far less important than in NE. Large regions (Great Lake r.) were still popular by Indians...hunting, fishing, But it was primary agricultural region. Its rich and plentiful lands made farming a lucrative activity here. Growing worldwide demand for farm products resulted in rising farm prices...1840s, 1850s..years of prosperity.
NW sold mostly to NE and eastern industry found the prospering market in E....strong economic relationship. That increased the isolation of South again.
To meet the increasing demand for its farm products, the NW was taking advantage of the large areas of still unoccupied land and enlarging the area under cultivation during 1840s., they also developed agricultural techniques designed to produce the largest possible crop in the shortest time, that often resulted in rapid ewhaustion of the region´s rich soil.
NW was less destructive, used Mediterranean wheat, better breeds of animals imported from Engnand and Spain, improvements in farm machines and tools..drills, harrows, mowers, hay rakes. The cast-iron plow still popular, because it was possible to replace its broken parts. 1847 JOHN DEERE Moline, Illinois established a factory to manufacture plows with steel moldboards.
2 new machines heralded a coming revolution in grain production: the automatic reaper "žací stroj" by CYRUS H. McCORMICK of Virginia patented in 1834, he established a factory in Chicago in 1847 .
- a machine that separated the grain from the wheat stalks "mlátička" ... most manufactured at the Jerome I. Case factory in Racine, Wisconsin.
The northwest was the most self-consciously democratic section of the country, but its democracy was relatively conservative type-capitalistic, property conscious, middle-class.

The Expanding South
Dramatic growth in the mid-19th century. New territories of SW, new communities established, new states and markets. Trade with sugar, rice, tobacco, cotton made South a major force in international commerce and created substantial wealth within the region. But the South still experienced a much less fundamental transformation in these years than North. It remained agrarian in 1860. As one historian written, The South grew, but did not develop.

The Rise of King Cotton
The most important development in S of mid19th century was the shift of economic power from the upper South (S. states along Atlantic coast) to the lower South (expanding agricultural r. in the new states of the Southwest).That reflected growing dominance of cotton in economy.
Nuch of the upper S continued in relying on the cultivation of tobacco, market was notoriously unstable, subject to recurrent depressions, tobacco rapidly exhausted land...many farmers in the old tobacco regions of Virginia, Maryland, N.Carolina were shiping to other corps.The coastal South rely on rice, which needed and exceptionally long growing season. Sugar growers had profitable market, but also required special conditions and long growing season. Long-staple (Sea Island) cotton was also lucrative, but as rice and tobacco could be grown only in limited area of coastal SE region. That shifted the attention of economy to new products...short-staple cotton, which could be grown in variety of soils, its seeds were difficult to remove from the fiber, but the invention of the cotton gin had largely solved the problem and by 1820s cotton production was spreading rapidly. By 1850s cotton became to be the linchpin of the Southern economy. There were periodic fluctuarions in cotton prices, resulting generally from overproduction. Politicians proclaimed: Cotton is king!
The prospect of tremendous profits quickly drew settlers by the thousands. Some who came were wealthy planters from older states who transfered their assets and slaves to a cotton plantation. Most were small slaveholders or slaveless farmers who intended to become popular.Slaves moved to the cotton areas. The sale of slaves to the SW became and important economic activity in the upper south and helped the troubled planters of that region to compenste for the declining value of their crops.

Southern Trade and Industry
The business classes of the region were also important. There was growing activity in flour milling and in textile and iron manufacturing, particulary in upper South. The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond .. best iron mills in NE. Industry remained the insignificant force in comparison with the agricultural economy. The South developed a nonfarm commercial sector, it was largely to serve the needs of the plantation economy. Important were brokers or factors, who marketed the planters´crops (in N.Orl, Charleston, Mobile, Savannah) , where they worked to find buyers for cotton and other crops and purchated goods for the planters they served.The Southern merchant-bankers became figures of importance.On the plantation economy depended also:groups of professional people: lawyers, editors, doctors.. But they were unimportant in comparison with the manufactures, merchants and professionals of the North, on whom was South dependent, which wrote Arkansas journalist ALBERT PIKE.
The most prominent advocate of Southern economic independence was JAMES B. D. DE BOW ...published a magazin advocating S commercial and agricultural expansion : De Bow´s Review , had to be printed in NY.
Despite this awareness of the region´s "colonial dependency", the South made few serious efforts to develop an economy that might challenge that dependency. But they did not develop own larger industrial and commercial economy, because of the great profitability of the region´s agricultural system and cotton production, Southerners wealth invested into land and slaves too much and did not have money for it. White Southenders also thinked of themselves as about cavaliers, people hapilly free from the base, acquisitive instincs of Northerners, more concerned with a gracious way of life than rapid growth and development.

Plantation Society
Only minority of Southern whites owned slaves. 1/4 of population owned slaves and only a small proportion owned them in substantial numbers. They were still seen as society with great plantation because of the planter aristocracy (cotton magnates, sugar, rice and tobacco nabobs, who owned 50 slaves and 800 acres) exercised power and influence far in excess of their numbers. In Virginia, some aristocrats were people whose families had occupied positions of wealth and power for generations, which was in southern states largery a myth. The great landowners in south wee still often first generation settlers, who had only relatively recentrly begun to live in the comfort.Large area of the Old South had been settled and cultivated for less than two decades at the time of the Civil War.Growing staple crops was a business in its own way as competitive and risky as the industrial enterprises of the North.
Wealthy Southern whites sustained their image of aristocrats in many ways: adopted an elaborate code of chivalry , which obligated white men to defend their honor . They avoided such soarse occupations as trade and commerce, some gravitated toward military, a suitable career for men raised in a culture in which medieval knights were a powerful and popular image.

The Southern Lady
Rich white women in South occupied roles similar to middle-class in North. Their lives were centered at home, serve as companions their husbands and as nurturing mothers for their children. But Southern Lady has also different things to do..S. white men gave them importance of the defense...white men were even more dominant and women even more subordinate in Southern culture. Social theorist, GEORGE FITZHUGH, wrote in 1850s, that women and children have only right to protection.
Majority lived on farms, isolated, no access to the public world. For many women living on farm of modest size engaged in spinning, weaving... They participated in agricultural tasks, helped supervise the slave work force. The plantation mistress became more an ornament for her husband than a meaningful part of economy of society. They also had far less access to education.1/4 were illiterate.
The Southern white birth rate remained nearly 20 % higher than of the nation as a whole, mortality was higher than elsewhere. Slave labour system created problems, male had sexual relationships with black slaves and children became labour and their whives saw them every day. A few Southern white women rebelled against the prevailing assumptions of their region, some became outspoken abolitionists and joined Northerners in the crusade to abolish slavery.

The Plain Folk
The typical white Southerner was not a great planter, but a modest yeoman farmer, usually with no slaves. These plain folk, most of whom owned their own land, devoted themselves largely to subsistence farming. Most yeomen knew they had little prospect of substantially bettering their lot. S education system produced poor farmers with little chance for higher education, for the sons of wealthy planters, the system provided ample opportunities to gain an education. In 1860 there were 260 Southern colleges, college was within the reach of only the upper class.
Some nonslaveowning whiters oppose the slaveholding oligarchy, but only in limited ways and few areas. These were the Southern highlanders, the hill people, who lived in the Appalachian ranges and in the Ozarks. They practiced a crude form of subsistence agriculture, owned practically no slaves, and had a proud sense of seclusion. Such whites frequently expressed animosity toward the planter aristocracy and misgiving about the system of slavery.
Far greater in number were the nonslaveowning whites in the midst of the plantation system. Most of them accepted that system because they were tied to it in an important way. Small farmers dependent on aristocracy because of access to cotton gins, markets for their modest crops and their livestocd, and for financial assistance. 1850, crackers, sand hillers or poor white trash , lived in miserable cabins amid almost unbelievable squalor, did not share plantation economy in any way. Held in contempt by both the planters and the small farmers of the South, they formed a true underclass. Their plight was worse than that of the black slaves.
People did not stand up against slavery, they had worries about they poorness, but also there was race, thanks which even the poorest white Southerners still could considere himself as a member of a ruling class. FREDERIC LAW OLMSTED, a Northerner chronicled Southern society in the 1850s.

The Population Institution
White Southerners often referred to slavery as the peculiar instirution , they meant that it was distinctive, special institution. Slavery still existed in mid-19th century! Slavery more than any other single factor isolated S from the rest of American society. The institution of slavery isolated blacks from whites, blacks under slavery developed a society and culture of their own. Slavery also created a unique bond between blacks and whites - masters and slaves- in the South.

Varieties of Slavery
Slavery was an institution established and regulated in detail by law, the slave codes forbade slaves to hold a property, to leave their masters´premises without permission, to be out after dark, to congregate with other slaves except at church, to carry firearms, strike a white person even in self-defense. The codes prohibited whites from teaching slaves to read or write. They contained no provisions to legalize slave marriages or divorces, killing slave by punishing was not a crime. Slaves faced the death penalty for killing or resisting a white person and for inciting to revolt. Anyone with even a trace of African ancestry was considered black, or he had to prove to be white. But despite the rigid provisions of law, there was in reality considerable variety within slave system. Many lived in prisonlike conditions, many enjoyed a certain flexibility and striking degree of authority.
On the small farms, there were only a few slaves, and masters often worked with them, here blacks and whites developed a form of intimacy unknown on larger plantations, which could be familiar, or tyranical. Blacks themselves preferred to live on larger farms, where they have more opportunities for privacy and social life of their own. Most of them worked on medium or large farms, where the relationships were less intimate. Substantial planters often hired overseers and even assistant overseers to represent them. The task system used mostly in rice culture, under which slaves were assigned a particular task in the morning, after completing the job were free for the rest of the day.The gang system, more common, employed on the cotton, sugar, tobacco plantations, slaves were divided into groups, directed by a driver, worked for as many hours as the overseer considered a reasonable workday. Slaves were provided with necessities to enable them to live and work. They got some food, sometimes could work in the garden, use fresh meat on occasions, got cheap clothing and shoes and lived in cabins called slave quarters . Medical care was mostly on slave women, partly on plantation mistress or doctor.
Women worked hard on fields with men, and also cooked, cleaned and raised children, they often acted as single parents, were special authorities.
Condition in US for slaves were terrible, slaves often worked to death. There were strong economic incentives to maintain a healthyslave population, result was that America became the only country where a slave population actually increased through narutal reproduction. Oversees were paid in proportion to the amount of work they could get out of the slaves they supervised.
Household servants had a somewhat easier life, physically at least, than did field hands. On a small plantation, the same slaves might do both field and house work, but on a large one, there would be a separate domestic staff. These people lived close to the master and his family, they resented their isolation from their fellow slaves and the lack of privacy than came with living in such close proximity to the family of the master. Female household servants were especially vulnerable to sexual abuse by their masters.
Slavery in the cities differed form slavery in the country. On the isolated plantations, slaves had little contact with free blacks and lower-class whites and masters maintained a fairly direct and effective control. In the city, a master often could not supervise his slaves closely, urban slaves gained numerous opportunities to mingle with free blacks and whites, the line between slavery and freedom remained, but it became less distinct. As southern citizens grew, the number of slaves in them declined. The reasons were social rather than economic. Fearing conspiracies and insurrections, urban slaveowners sold off much of their male property to the countryside. Black women stayed among whites...mullatoes.

The Slave Trade
The transfer of slaves in the south area was one of the most important demographic consequences of the development of the Southwest. Sometimes slaves moved to the new cotton lands in the company of their original owners, more often the transfer occurred through the medium of profesional slave traders. Traders transported slaves over long distances on trains or on river or ocean steamers. On shorter journey slaves moved on foot. At the auction , the bidders checked the slaves like livestock, watching them as they were made to walk or trot, inspecting their teeth, feeling their arms and legs, looking for signs of infirmity or age. Markets were in Natchez, N. Orleans, Mobile, Galveston.
The domestic slave trade was essential to the growth and prosperity of the whole system. The trade dehumanized all who were involved in it. Many families were broken up. The foreign slave trade was even worse, although federal law had prohibited the importation of slaves from 1808 on, they continued to be smuggled in as late as the 1850s.

Slave Resistance
There were debats about the effects of slavery on the blacks themselves. Slaveowners liked to argue that the slaves were generally content , happy with their lot .But it is clear that vast majority of S blacks were not content with being slaves, they yearned for freedom, virtually all Southern blacks reacted to freedom with joy and celebrations.
The dominant response of blacks to slavery was a combination of adaptation and resistance. One extreme was what becameknown as the Sambo - a slave who acted out the role that he recognized the white world expected of him. Other was the slave rebel, who could not bring himself or herself to either acceptance or accommodation but harbored an unquenchable spirit of rebelliousness.
Actual slave revolts were extremely rare: 1800, GABRIEL PROSSER gathered 1,000 rebellious slaves outside Richmond. In 1822 , the Charleston free black DENMARK VESEY and his followers made preparation for revolt. 1831 , NAT TURNER, a slave preacher, led a band of blacks who armed themselves wih guns and axes, on a summer midnight, went from house to house in Southampton County, Virginia, slaughtered 60 white men, whomen, children before being overpowered by state and federal troops. Nat Turner´s was the only actual slave insurrection.
In some cases, slaves worked within the system to free themselves from it, earning money with which they managed to buy freedom. ..ELIZABETH KECKLEY from sewing bought freedom for herself and her son and became companion to Mary Lincoln in the White House.
Some slaves had the good fortune to b