Ekonomika

HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
REPORT 2004
Cultural liberty
in today’s
diverse world
Published
for the United Nations
Development Programme
(UNDP)
Copyright ©2004
by the United Nations Development Programme
1 UN Plaza, New York, New York, 10017, USA
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
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without prior permission.
For a listing of any errors or omissions in HDR2004 found subsequent to printing, please visit our website at
http://hdr.undp.org
ISBN 0-19-522146-X
987654321
Printed by Hoechstetter Printing Co. on chlorine-free paper with vegetable inks and
produced by means of environmentally compatible technology.
Cover and design: Gerald Quinn, Quinn Information Design, Cabin John, Maryland
Information design: Grundy & Northedge, London
Editing, desktop composition and production management: Communications Development Incorporated,
Washington, DC
Core team
Carla De Gregorio, Haishan Fu (Chief of Statistics), Ricardo
Fuentes, Arunabha Ghosh, Claes Johansson, Christopher
Kuonqui, Santosh Mehrotra, Tanni Mukhopadhyay, Stefano
Pettinato, David Stewart and Emily White
Statistical adviser: Tom Griffin
Editors: Cait Murphy and Bruce Ross-Larson
Cover and layout design: Gerald Quinn
Information design: Grundy & Northedge
Principal consultants
Amartya Sen (Chapter 1), Lourdes Arizpe, Robert Bach, Rajeev
Bhargava, Elie Cohen, Emmanuel de Kadt, Nicholas Dirks,
K.S. Jomo, Will Kymlicka, Valentine Moghadam, Joy
Moncrieffe, Sam Moyo, Brendan O’Leary, Kwesi Kwaa Prah,
Barnett R. Rubin, Daniel Sabbagh, D.L. Sheth, Rodolfo
Stavenhagen, Alfred Stepan, Deborah Yashar and Aristide
Zolberg
TEAM FOR THE PREPARATION OF
Human Development Report 2004
Director and Lead Author
Sakiko Fukuda-Parr
HDRO colleagues
The team expresses its sincere gratitude for the invaluable support and contributions from their colleagues in the Human Development
Report Office (HDRO). Administrative support for the Report’s preparation was provided by Oscar Bernal, Renuka Corea-Lloyd and
Mamaye Gebretsadik. Outreach and promotional work for the Report were provided by Nena Terrell with Maria Kristina Dominguez
and Anne-Louise Winsløv. HDRO operations were managed by Yves Sassenrath with Marie Suzanne Ndaw. And the team collaborated
with members of the National Human Development Report (NHDR) Unit including: Sarah Burd-Sharps (Deputy Director HDRO and
Chief NHDR Unit), Marcia de Castro, Sharmila Kurukulasuriya, Juan Pablo Mejia and Mary Ann Mwangi.

v
At a time when the notion of a global “clash of
cultures” is resonating so powerfully—and
worryingly—around the world, finding answers
to the old questions of how best to manage and
mitigate conflict over language, religion, culture
and ethnicity has taken on renewed importance.
For development practitioners this is not an ab-
stract question. If the world is to reach the Mil-
lennium Development Goals and ultimately
eradicate poverty, it must first successfully con-
front the challenge of how to build inclusive,
culturally diverse societies. Not just because doing
so successfully is a precondition for countries to
focus properly on other priorities of economic
growth, health and education for all citizens. But
because allowing people full cultural expression
is an important development end in itself.
Human development is first and foremost
about allowing people to lead the kind of life they
choose—and providing them with the tools and
opportunities to make those choices. In recent
years Human Development Report has argued
strongly that this is as much a question of poli-
tics as economics—from protecting human rights
to deepening democracy. Unless people who
are poor and marginalized—who more often
than not are members of religious or ethnic mi-
norities or migrants—can influence political ac-
tion at local and national levels, they are unlikely
to get equitable access to jobs, schools, hospi-
tals, justice, security and other basic services.
This year’s Report builds on that analysis,
by carefully examining—and rejecting—claims
that cultural differences necessarily lead to so-
cial, economic and political conflict or that in-
herent cultural rights should supersede political
and economic ones. Instead, it provides a pow-
erful argument for finding ways to “delight in
our differences”, as Archbishop Desmond Tutu
has put it. It also offers some concrete ideas on
what it means in practice to build and manage
the politics of identity and culture in a manner
consistent with the bedrock principles of human
development.
Sometimes, that is relatively easy—for ex-
ample, a girl’s right to an education will always
trump her father’s claim to a cultural right to
forbid her schooling for religious or other rea-
sons. But the question can get much more com-
plicated. Take education in the mother tongue.
There is persuasive evidence that young children
are more successful learning in their own lan-
guage. However, what is an advantage at one
point in life—and indeed may remain an in-
dispensable bedrock of identity throughout
life—can turn into a disadvantage in other ways
when lack of proficiency in more widely used
national or international languages can severely
handicap employment opportunities. As this
Report makes clear, from affirmative action to
the role of the media, there are no easy—or
one size fits all—rules for how best to build
working multicultural societies.
Even so, one overarching lesson is clear:
succeeding is not simply a question of legisla-
tive and policy changes, necessary though they
be. Constitutions and legislation that provide
protections and guarantees for minorities, in-
digenous people and other groups are a criti-
cal foundation for broader freedoms. But unless
the political culture also changes—unless citi-
zens come to think, feel and act in ways that gen-
uinely accommodate the needs and aspirations
of others—real change will not happen.
When the political culture does not change,
the consequences are disturbingly clear. From dis-
affected indigenous groups across Latin America,
to unhappy minorities in Africa and Asia, to new
immigrants across the developed world, failing to
address the grievances of marginalized groups
does not just create injustice. It builds real prob-
lems for the future: unemployed, disaffected
Foreword
vi
youth, angry with the status quo and demanding
change, often violently.
That is the challenge. But there are also real
opportunities. The overarching message of
this Report is to highlight the vast potential of
building a more peaceful, prosperous world by
bringing issues of culture to the mainstream of
development thinking and practice. Not to
substitute for more traditional priorities that
will remain our bread and butter—but to com-
plement and strengthen them. The flip side of
the development divide is that developing
countries are often able to draw on richer,
more diverse cultural traditions—whether cap-
tured in language, art, music or other forms—
than their wealthier counterparts in the North.
The globalization of mass culture—from books
to films to television—clearly poses some sig-
nificant threats to these traditional cultures. But
it also opens up opportunities, from the nar-
row sense of disadvantaged groups like Aus-
tralian Aborigines or Arctic Inuit tapping
global art markets, to the broader one of cre-
ating more vibrant, creative, exciting societies.
Like all Human Development Reports,
this is an independent study intended to stim-
ulate debate and discussion around an im-
portant issue, not a statement of United
Nations or UNDP policy. However, by taking
up an issue often neglected by development
economists and putting it firmly within the
spectrum of priorities in building better, more
fulfilled lives, it presents important arguments
for UNDP and its partners to consider and act
on in their broader work. This year, I would
also like to pay particular tribute to Sakiko
Fukuda-Parr, who is stepping down after 10
successful years leading our Human Devel-
opment Report Office. I would also like to
extend special thanks to Amartya Sen, one of
the godfathers of human development, who has
not only contributed the first chapter but been
an enormous influence in shaping our think-
ing on this important issue.
The analysis and policy recommendations of this Report do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Development Pro-
gramme, its Executive Board or its Member States. The Report is an independent publication commissioned by UNDP. It is the fruit of
a collaborative effort by a team of eminent consultants and advisers and the Human Development Report team. Sakiko Fukuda-Parr,
Director of the Human Development Report Office, led the effort.
Mark Malloch Brown
Administrator, UNDP
vii
This Report could not have been prepared with-
out the generous contributions of many indi-
viduals and organizations.
The team expresses its sincere gratitude to
Professor Amartya Sen, who provided the con-
ceptual framework for the Report.
CONTRIBUTORS
The team is particularly grateful for its collab-
oration with the Director-General of UNESCO,
Koïchiro Matsuura, and his staff, especially
Ann-Belinda Preis, Katarina Stenou and Rene
Zapata.
Many background studies, papers and notes
were prepared on thematic issues related to
identity, cultural diversity and cultural liberty.
These were contributed by Lourdes Arizpe,
Robert Bach, Rajeev Bhargava, Elie Cohen,
Emanuel De Kadt, Carolyn Deere, Nicholas
Dirks, K.S. Jomo, Will Kymlicka, Valentine
Moghadam, Joy Moncrieffe, Sam Moyo, Bren-
dan O’Leary, Kwesi Kwaa Prah, Barnett R.
Rubin, Daniel Sabbagh, Amartya Sen, D.L.
Sheth, Rodolfo Stavenhagen, Alfred Stepan,
Deborah Yashar and Aristide Zolberg. Chap-
ter 2 benefited from the country maps and as-
sociated information on conflict provided by the
Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, es-
pecially from the work of Meegan Murray,
Praveen Pardeshi and Pablo Ruiz.
Several organizations generously shared
their data and other research materials: Car-
bon Dioxide Information and Analysis Cen-
ter; Caribbean Community Secretariat; Center
for International Comparisons at the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania; Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific; Food
and Agriculture Organization; International
Institute for Strategic Studies; International
Labour Organization; International Mone-
tary Fund; International Organizations for
Migration; International Telecommunication
Union; Inter-Parliamentary Union; Joint
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS;
Luxembourg Income Study; Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development;
Stockholm International Peace Research In-
stitute; United Nations Children's Fund;
United Nations Conference on Trade and De-
velopment; United Nations Economic Com-
mission for Latin America and the Caribbean;
United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization Institute for Statistics;
United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees; United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime; United Nations Office of Legal Af-
fairs; United Nations Population Division;
United Nations Statistics Division; World
Bank; World Health Organization and World
Intellectual Property Organization.
The team also expresses its appreciation for
the support received from the Rockefeller Foun-
dation, especially Ram Manikkalingam, Janet
Maughan, Joan Shigekawa, Lynn Szwaja, Tomas
Ybarro-Frausto as well as Gianna Celli and
Nadia Giladroni at the Bellagio Rockefeller
Foundation Conference and Study Center.
ADVISORY PANEL
The Report benefited greatly from intellec-
tual advice and guidance provided by an ex-
ternal advisory panel of eminent experts. The
panel included Arjun Appadurai, Robert Bach,
Seyla Benhabib, Nancy Birdsall, Jody Naran-
dran Kollapen, Mahmood Mamdani, Sonia
Picado, Surin Pitsuwan, Jorge F. Quiroga,
Acknowledgements
viii
Paul Streeten, Victoria Tauli-Corpus, Ngaire
Woods, Rene Zapata and Antonina Zhelyaz-
kova. An advisory panel on statistics included
Sudhir Anand, Paul Cheung, Willem DeVries,
Lamine Diop, Carmen Feijo, Andrew Flatt,
Paolo Garonna, Robert Johnston, Irena Kriz-
man, Nora Lustig, Ian Macredie, Marion
McEwin, Wolf Scott, Tim Smeeding and
Michael Ward.
CONSULTATIONS
Many individuals consulted during the prepa-
ration of the Report provided invaluable ad-
vice, information and material. The Report team
thanks Carla Abouzahr, Yasmin Ahmad, Patri-
cia Alexander, Serge Allegrezza, Anna Alvazzi
del Frate, Shaida Badiee, Yusuf Bangura, Nefise
Bazoglu, Grace Bediako, Matt Benjamin, Yonas
Biru, Ties Boerma, Eduard Bos, Thomas Buet-
tner, Tony Burton, Rosario Garcia Calderon, Joe
Chamie, Shaohua Chen, Paul Cheung, Martin
Chungong, David Cieslikowski, Lee Cokori-
nos, Patrick R. Cornu, Kim Cragin, Trevor
Croft, Gaurav Datt, Ian Dennis, Yuri Dikhanov,
Dennis Drescher, Asghar Ali Engineer, Hubert
Escaith, Kareen Fabre, Yousef Falah, Richard
Fix, Karl Franklin, Nancy Fraser, Rodolfo Roque
Fuentes, Enrique Ganuza, Peter Ghys, Erlinda
Go, Rui Gomes, Ray Gordon, Marilyn
Gregerson, Ted Robert Gurr, Brian Hammond,
Philomen Harrison, Sabinne Henning, Alan
Heston, Misako Hiraga, Frederick W.H. Ho,
Joop van Holsteyn, Béla Hovy, Piero Ignazi,
Chandika Indikadahena, Jens Johansen,
Lawrence Jeff Johnson, Robert Johnston, Vas-
antha Kandiah, Alison Kennedy, Sio Suat Kheng,
Elizabeth Kielman, Taro Komatsu, Karoly Ko-
vacs, Olivier Labe, Frank Laczko, Henrik
Larsen, Georges Lemaitre, Denise Lievesley,
Rolf Luyendijk, Nyein Nyein Lwin, Doug Lynd,
Esperanza C. Magpantay, Mary Mahy, Heikki
S. Mattila, Clare Menozzi, Jorge Mernies,
Michael Minges, Anjali Mody, Catherine Mona-
gle, Bruno Moro, Ron Morren, Philip Mukungu,
Angela Ferriol Muruaga, Jack Nagel, Keiko
Osaki, Jude Padyachy, Sonia Palmieri, Rosario
Pardo, Amy Pate, Sulekha Patel, François Pel-
letier, Bob Pember, Indira Persaud, Francesca
Perucci, Rudolphe Petras, Spyridon Pilos, Li-
onel Pintopontes, William Prince, Lakshmi
Puri, Agnès Puymoyen, Hantamalala Rafali-
manana, Markandey Rai, Vijayendra Rao, Luca
Renda, Clinton Robinson, David Roodman, Ri-
cardo Sibrián, Shaguni Singh, Armin Sirco,
Carl Skau, Petter Stalenheim, Elsa Stam-
atopoulou, Mark Stoker, Diane Stukel, Ilpo
Survo, Eric Swanson, Tony Taubman, Benedicte
Terryn, Michel Thieren, Anne Thomas, Barbara
Trudell, Elisa Tsakiri, Rafael Tuts, Erica Usher,
Said Voffal, Rick Wacek, Neff Walker, Steve
Walter, Tessa Wardlaw, Jayashree Watal,
Glenys Waters, Catherine Watt, Wendy Wend-
land, Patrick Werquin, Siemon Wezeman, An-
ders Widfeldt, Boris Wijkström, Jonathan
Wilkenfeld, Diane Wroge, A. Sylvester Young,
Elizabeth Zaniewski and Hania Zlotnik.
An informal consultation with UN agencies
provided the team with helpful comments and
suggestions. The team thanks Food and Agri-
culture Organization; International Fund for
Agricultural Development; International Labour
Organization; International Monetary Fund;
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS;
United Nations Children’s Fund; United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development; United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Af-
fairs; United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization; United Nations En-
vironment Programme; United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights; United Na-
tions High Commissioner for Refugees; United
Nations Human Settlements Programme; United
Nations Institute for Training and Research;
United Nations Population Fund; World Health
Organization; World Intellectual Property Or-
ganization and World Bank.
The team would like to thank members of
the UNDP human development reports net-
work (HDR-Net) and civil society network who
provided many insightful comments and sug-
gestions during the network discussions.
UNDP READERS
A Readers Group, made up of colleagues in
UNDP, provided extremely useful comments,
suggestions and inputs during the writing of the
ix
Report. The Report team is especially grateful
to Randa Aboul-Hosn, Fernando Calderon,
Moez Doraid, Gilbert Fossoun Houngbo, An-
drey Ivanov, Selim Jahan, Bruce Jenks, Freddy
Justiniano, Inge Kaul, Douglas Keh, Thierry
Lemaresquier, Lamin Manneh, Saraswathi
Menon, Kalman Mizsei, Balasubramaniam Mu-
rali, Shoji Nishimoto, Omar Noman, William
Orme, Eugenio Ortega, Hilda Paqui, Ravi Rajan,
Ramaswamy Sudarshan, Mark Suzman, Julia
V. Taft, Gulden Turkoz-Cosslett, Louisa Vin-
ton, Mourad Wahba and Gita Welch.
EDITING, PRODUCTION AND TRANSLATION
As in previous years, the Report benefited from
the editors at Communications Development In-
corporated: Meta de Coquereaumont, Eliza-
beth McCrocklin, Thomas Roncoli, Bruce
Ross-Larson and Christopher Trott. The Report
(including cover) was designed by Gerald Quinn
and laid out by Elaine Wilson. Statistical in-
formation appearing in the Report was designed
by Grundy & Northedge.
The production, translation, distribution and
promotion of the Report benefited from the help
and support of the Communications Office of the
Administrator: Djibril Diallo, Maureen Lynch,
Trygve Olfarnes, Bill Orme, Hilda Paqui as well
as Elizabeth Scott Andrews. Translations were re-
viewed by Helene Castel, Cielo Morales, Vladimir
Scherbov, Andrey Ivanov, and Ali Al-Kasimi.
The Report also benefited from the dedi-
cated work of interns: Valentina Azzarello,
Alexandra Lopoukhine, Rachel Sorrentino and
Rati Tripathi. Emmanuel Boudard and Jessica
Lopatka made valuable contributions to the
statistical team.
Liliana Izquierdo and Gerardo Nunez of
the UN Office of Project Services provided
critical administrative support and manage-
ment services.
***
The team expresses sincere appreciation to the
Report’s peer reviewer, Will Kymlicka, who
carefully reviewed drafts and shared his ex-
pertise and insights. The team is also grateful to
Ian Macredie, Lene Mikkelsen and David
Pearce, the statistical peer reviewers who scru-
tinized the data in the Report and lent their sta-
tistical expertise.
Finally, the authors are especially grateful
to Mark Malloch Brown, UNDP’s Adminis-
trator, for his leadership and vision. And al-
though thankful for all the support they have
received, the authors assume full responsibility
for the opinions expressed in the Report.
Sakiko Fukuda-Parr
Director
Human Development Report 2004
x
OVERVIEW Cultural liberty in today’s diverse world 1
CHAPTER 1 Cultural liberty and human development 13
Participation and recognition 14
Freedoms, human rights and the role of diversity 15
Identity, community and freedom 16
Globalization, asymmetry and democracy 19
Conclusions 22
CHAPTER 2 Challenges for cultural liberty 27
Cultural liberty—an uncharted dimension of human development 28
Promoting cultural liberty requires recognizing differences in identity 36
Three myths surrounding cultural liberty and development 38
Today’s challenges for cultural liberty 44
CHAPTER 3 Building multicultural democracies 47
Resolving state dilemmas in recognizing cultural difference 47
Policies for ensuring the political participation of diverse cultural groups 50
Policies on religion and religious practice 54
Policies on customary law and legal pluralism 57
Policies on the use of multiple languages 60
Policies for redressing socio-economic exclusion 65
CHAPTER 4 Confronting movements for cultural domination 73
Movements for cultural domination—today’s challenges 74
Dilemmas for democracies—restrictive or accommodative measures? 77
CHAPTER 5 Globalization and cultural choice 85
Globalization and multiculturalism 88
Flows of investment and knowledge—including indigenous people in a globally integrated world 91
Flows of cultural goods—widening choices through creativity and diversity 96
Flows of people—multiple identities for global citizens 99
Notes 107
Bibliographic note 110
Bibliography 112
Contents
xi
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS
Human rights embody the fundamental values of human civilizations Shirin Ebadi 23
Diversity—from divisive to inclusive Nelson Mandela 43
Recognition of linguistic diversity in Afghanistan’s Constitution Hamid Karzai 64
Difference is not a threat but a source of strength John Hume 82
Indigenous peoples and development Ole Henrik Magga 91
BOXES
2.1 Two aspects of cultural exclusion 27
2.2 Defining cultural rights lags behind defining civil, political, economic and social rights—why? 28
2.3 Measuring cultural liberty 31
2.4 The human development index: capturing inequalities across groups 36
2.5 Cultural policies—protecting cultural heritage and promoting cultural liberty 38
2.6 Inequalities between groups can fuel conflict and tension 41
2.7 Solomon Islands’ ethnic difference not the cause of conflict 42
3.1 A rough guide to federalism 50
3.2 The challenge of federalism: Nigeria’s troubled political trajectory and prospects 52
3.3 Proportional representation or winner takes all? New Zealand makes a switch 55
3.4 The many forms of secular and non-secular states and their effects on religious freedom 56
3.5 Hindu and Muslim personal law: the ongoing debate over a uniform civil code 57
3.6 Access to justice and cultural recognition in Guatemala 59
3.7 Multilingual education in Papua New Guinea 61
3.8 How many languages are there in Africa? 85% of