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Brief history and overview
Prior to the mid-19th century British politics was dominated by the Whigs and the Tories. These were not political parties in the modern sense but somewhat loose alliances of interests and individuals. The Whigs were associated with the newly emerging moneyed industrial classes, and the Tories were associated with the landed gentry and the Anglican Church.
By the mid 19th century the Tories had evolved into the Conservative Party, and the Whigs had evolved into the Liberal Party.

These two parties dominated the political scene until the 1920s, when the Liberal Party declined in popularity and suffered a long stream of resignations. It was replaced as the main left-wing party by the newly emerging Labour Party, who represented an alliance between the Trade Unions and various socialist societies.

Since then the Conservative and Labour Parties have dominated British politics, and have alternated in government ever since. The UK is nearly but not quite a two-party system however. The Liberals merged with the Social Democrats because they had very similar views and became the Liberal Democrats which are now a sizeable third party whose electoral results have improved in recent years.

In recent years, proportional representation-based voting systems have been adopted for elections to the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, the Northern Ireland Assembly, the London Assembly and the UK's seats in the European Parliament. In these bodies, minor parties have had some amount of success.

Traditionally political parties have been private organisations with no official recognition by the state. The Registration of Political Parties Act 1998 changed that by creating a register of parties.

Labour Party
Traditionally left-wing now claims the "centre ground" of British politics; allied to Trade unions; free market policies have replaced its earlier socialist platform in recent years; supports greater European integration; socially progressive

Conservative Party
Centre-right to right-wing party; committed to free markets since 1940s; opposes greater European integration; socially conservative

Liberal Democrats
Tradtionally centrist, has drifted increasingly to the left since the emergence of New Labour; supports greater European integration; socially progressive

Plaid Cymru - Party of Wales
Centre-left party in favour of Welsh independence.

Green Party of England and Wales
Generally centre-left, ecologist party.

Liberal Party, Former members of the historic Liberal Party who refounded themselves as the Liberals when they felt that the old party had been lost in the merger with the Social Democratic Party.
Základní členění církví:

kokatolická církev
další církve v jednotě s Petrovým stolcem (římskou církví), které mají svou vlastní organizace a bohoslužbu
Starokatolická církev
 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglik%C3%A1nsk%C3%A1_c%C3%ADrkev" \o "Anglikánská církev" Anglikánská církev
 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantstv%C3%AD" \o "Protestantství" Protestantství
 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luterstv%C3%AD" \o "Luterství" Luteránské církve
 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformovan%C3%A9_c%C3%ADrkve" \o "Reformované církve" Reformované církve
 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravoslav%C3%AD" \o "Pravoslaví" Pravoslavná církev
 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%BDchodn%C3%AD_monofyzitsk%C3%A9_c%C3%ADrkve&action=edit" \o "Východní monofyzitské církve" Východní monofyzitské církve
 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestori%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9_c%C3%ADrkve" \o "Nestoriánské církve" Nestoriánské církve
Katolické církve se chápou a definují ve společenství s dalšími církvemi jako založený lid nové smlouvy. Tvrdí a navzájem si uznávají nepřetržitou dějinnou kontinuitu s církví založenou Ježíšem Kristem, která je zaručena - a kněžským . Římskokatolická církev uznává HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravoslavn%C3%A1_c%C3%ADrkev" \o "Pravoslavná církev" pravoslavných církví a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Starokatolick%C3%A1_c%C3%ADrkev&action=edit" \o "Starokatolická církev" starokatolické církve, avšak vyslovila se negativně o apoštolské posloupnosti a \o "Anglikánská církev" anglikánské církve. Uznává nejvyšší autoritu , římského biskupa, tvrdí, že jejich nepřerušená řada sahá až k 5%A1tol" \o "Apoštol" apoštolu .
Anglikánská církev ( Church of England, mimo .wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglie" \o "Anglie" Anglii většinou The Anglican Church) je mateřskou církví C3%ADrkev" \o "Církev" církví, která je v podřízena panovníkově moci. Anglikánská církev je dnes přítomná v Anglii, otsku a a jedná se o státní církev v klasickém smyslu.
V jejím čele stojí , který má titul Supreme Governor (nejvyšší panovník) nebo také Defensor Fidei (ochránce víry). Dále mají rozhodující vliv na dění v církvi dva /wiki/Arcibiskup" \o "Arcibiskup" arcibiskupové a biskupové 24 nejstarších biskupských sídel, kteří jsou zastoupeni ve . Mezi členy církve se dnes počítá již méně než polovina obyvatelstva Anglie a těchto členů nadále ubývá. V církevních záležitostech církvi předsedá arcibiskup z jakožto NK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primas" \o "Primas" primas, kterému v přísluší také nejvyšší úcta.
Anglikánská církev tradičně vidí své počátky v příchodu křesťanství do Anglie (počátky kolem roku ), avšak skutečně samostatná anglikánská církev vzniká až rozdělením s vyvolaným roku LINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1534" \o "1534" 1534. Počátek rozdělení leží v neochotě ent VII." Klimenta VII. Jindřicha VIII. s . O tuto anulaci Jindřich zažádal roku . Po počátečních neúspěších reagoval roku "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1529" \o "1529" 1529 anglický král útokem na duchovní moc papeže a později též vyžadoval vysokou pokutu od anglických kněží za údajnou nelegitimitu jejich úřadu a žádal po nich uznání coby ochránce a nejvyšší hlavy. Církev v Anglii uznala za svou hlavu Jindřicha VIII. , ale během roku \o "1532" 1532 se Jindřich stále snaží o jednání s .
Roku byl uzákoněn zákaz možnosti dia.org/wiki/Odvol%C3%A1n%C3%AD" \o "Odvolání" odvolání anglického  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kl%C3%A9rus&action=edit" \o "Klérus" kléru i  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laik&action=edit" \o "Laik" laiků do Říma ve věcech manželství, a dalších záležitostí; odvolacími autoritami se stali arcibiskupové v Canterbury a Yorku. tle=Thomas_Crammer&action=edit" \o "Thomas Crammer" Thomas Crammer, nově dosazený arcibiskup canterburský, pak anuloval Jindřichovo manželství a Jindřich se oženil s u Boleynovou. Kliment VIII. Jindřicha .
Roku konečně Act of Submission definitivně zakázal kléru právo odvolání se do Říma a fakticky tak ukončil papežův vliv na dění v Anglii. Jindřich se stává nejvyšším vládcem anglikánské církve. Jindřichovi oddělení církve od Říma umožnilo také získat rozsáhlé majetky církve, zvláště po vydání zákona o rozpuštění (-).
Po oddělení od Říma zůstávala církev za Jindřichovy vlády nadále v zásadě a Jindřich VIII. dokonce i nadále užíval čestný titul Defensor fidei (obránce víry), který mu ve 20. letech 16. století udělil za jeho spis proti . Avšak hned zpočátku dochází k určitému , zrušení a poutních míst, omezení svátků .
Protože ke změně povahy církve v Anglii dochází v atmosféře , dochází i v ní ke změnám. K velké změně liturgie v protestantském smyslu a k jejímu překladu dochází za vlády Jindřichova syna (-). Book of Common Prayer, závazný text pro liturgii a modlitbu, byla vydána roku a roku ji schválil anglický .
Po Edvardu VI. nastoupila na trůn (-). Odmítla změny provedené Jindřichem i Edvardem a znovunastolila jednotu s Římem. Vzhledem k drsnému způsobu, kterým se snažila o rekatolizaci země jí dějiny obdařily přízviskem Krvavá Marie.
Po Mariině smrti zasedla na trůn její nevlastní sestra (-), která se ostře stavěla papežově pravomoci v Anglii a znovu se pokusila o osamostatnění církve v Anglii. Alžbětu však exkomunikoval až papež . Oficiálně se však anglikánská církev oddělila od římské již roku , kdy Parlament uznal Alžbětu za svého nejvyššího panovníka a obnovil (Zákon o svrchovanosti). Téhož roku se objevuje nové vydání Book of Common Prayer.
Během (-) změnili vládnoucí dosavadní strukturu církve na , avšak zachovali přitom princip státní kontroly nad církví. Po nástupu roku dochází k restauraci episkopálních struktur v církvi a roku vychází nové vydání Book of Common Prayer.
V se jako výsledek reformy církve rodí . V 1. polovině 19. století rozkvétá v rámci anglikánské církve tzv. , které nabývá velkého vlivu a spolu s ním jsou posíleny katolické tendence v rámci církve (nejvýznamnějším představitelem hnutí byl , který se později stává katolíkem).
Anglikánská církev se sama považuje za účastnici jak reformační, tak katolické . Velmi byla ovlivněna principy a nepřijímá autoritu římského biskupa, tedy papeže. Zároveň má za to, že stojí v nepřerušené tradici všeobecné církve. Praxí je církev bližší římskokatolické církvi než církvím protestantským. Co do postojů je církev poměrně konzervativní.

Life and thought
people’s ideas and beliefs changed enormously
everything in the universe had a natural explanation
1714 – Britain is a leading European power and Britain had so many new colonies

Puritans persuaded James I. to permit a new official translation of the Bible - 1611
some people understood the Bible in a new and revolutionary way
there were new se sects – Baptist and Quakers{Quakers – reforming social work 18cn}
sects – for poor and powerless
Anglican Church was strong politically – religious writers – John Bunyan, John Milton
1620 – Pilgrim Fathers, the Mayflower to Massachusetts – catholic families
Cromwell allowed Jews to settle again
many Protestants – Huguenots escaped from France to settled in Britain

Francis Bacon – became James I’s Lord Chancellor

1628 William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood
1666 the Cambridge Professor of Mathematics – Sir Isaac Newton began to studz gravity, published 1684, 1687 – Principia – financed by Edmund Halley {Halley’s comet} in 1682

-1666 following a jear of terrible plague, there was a fire – destroyed most of the city of London
- Newspapers appeared in the 17 cn – spreading all kinds of ideas, sciengific, religious and literary and advertisements

Life and work in the Stuart age
1670 Britain was able to export cereals to Europe, a lot of poor people – result of the Thirty Years War {1618-48}, damaged European agriculture
1650 – London has 500 000 people
same year – rich began to meet in the new coffeehouses
there were Tudor gentry – older, called themselves squires to be recognized from new Stuart gentry – yeomen

Family life
higher average age of first marriages – 25-27, more men remained unmarried then before
increasing authority of the Church following the Reformation
The Protestants put extra responsibility on the head of the family for its spiritual welfare – the father always led daily family prayers and Bible reading, absolute obedience of women

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
The political word
before the end of the eighteenth century Britain was as powerful as France
this resulted from the growth of its industries and from the wealth of its large new trading empire
Britain had strongest navy in the world
for the frist time – king’s ministers were the real policy and decision makers
power belonged to the groups from which the ministers came, and their supporters in Parliament
people became the working proletariat of the ities
The invention of machinery destroyed the old cottage industrie and created factories
Methodism – new religious movement

Politics and finance
Queen Anne – the last of the Stuarts died in 1714
new king – Protestan ruler of Hanover – George
James started 1715 rebellion against George I., but was defeated {defeating of English and Scottish Jacobites – Stuart supporters}
new king spoke only German
among the ministers was Robert Walpole – Britain’s first Prime Minister
at the end of the seventeenth century the government had been forced to borrow money in order to pay for the war with France

- The Bank of England – raise money by printing bank notes
- easier trade – promisory notes – something like cheques
- South sea company fell – South Sea Bubble – making companies responsible to the public for the money which they borrowed by the sale of shares

Walpole developed the idea of Cabinet – working together in small groups
all members of the Cabinet were together responsible for policy decisions
1688 – Glorious Revolutionary – limited monarch
- king couldn’t remove or change laws
- the kin was dependent on Parliament for his financial income and for his army
- choose his ministers
- Walpole wanted to avoid war and to increase taxes
- He put taxes on luxury goods, such as tea, coffee and chocolate {tea-national drink 1700}
1733 – France made an alliance with Spain
1756 – War with France broke out {1743-48}
1760 – new king George III
1763 – George III made peace with France {without informing Prussia}
- Britain’s international trade increased rapidly

John Wilkes was a Whig – one member of parliament and didn’t like the government of George III.
he wanted free speech
he printed a strong attack on the government in his own newspaper because of the peace with France and saying nothing to Prussia
Wilkes was areested in the Tower of London {most popular in London}
1750 – 1770 – the number of newspapers had increased

Radicalism and the loss of the American colonies
1764 – there was a serious quarrel over taxation between the British government and its colonies in America
- some American colonists decided that it wasn’t lawful for the British to tax them without their agreement
1773 – a group of colonists threw a shipload of tea into the sea rather than pay tax on it = Boston Teaparty
- British government answered by closing th port
- colonists then decided to prevent British goods from entering America until the port was opened again
- American War of Independence had begun
- The war in America lasted from 1775 – 1783
- the result was a disastrous defeat for the British government – it lost everything except for Canada
- manz British politicians openly supported the colonists – radicals {e.g. Edmund Burke and Tom Paine}

Ireland – Orange Lodges – societies which were against any freedom for the Catholics

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland lasted for 120 years

Scotland
the first Jacobite revolt to win the crown for James II’s son
1715 – unsuccessful
1745 The Stuarts tried again when James II’s grandson – Prince Charles Edward Stuart
the rebels were defeated by the British army at Culloden near Inverness 1746

Life in town and country
8,8 mil
- all the towns smelled bad because there were no drains
- streets were used as lavatories and the dirt was seldom removed
- the streets were muddz and narrow – some only two metres wide
- the towns were centres of disease – poor died youngest, they were buried together in large holes dug in the ground – weren’t covered with earth until they were full
- during 18 cn. were built wider so that carriages drawn by horses could pass each other
1734 – streets had street lighting system
- Catholics and Jews were still not allowed into Parliament
- 4 main classes of people – the wealthy merchants, the ordinary merchants and traders, the skilled craftsmen and the large number of workers who han no skill

The Rich
The men went hunting and riding and carried out improvements, natural-looking gardens and parks, some of the gentry became interested in collecting tress or plants from abroad.
Women – dancies, parties than boring
The Countryside
-kilt and tartan were forbidden – the law was broken 1782
- the real disaster in the Highlands was economic, clan lands were replaced with sheep – process = clearances
- at the beginning of the 18 cn. – seed drill – machine for sowing corn seed in straight lines and at fixed intervals – invented by Jethro Tull
- growing animal food also made it possible to keep animals through the winter, before mid-eighteenth cn. most animals were killed before winter
- the population had started to grow at a greatly increased rate
- improved use of land made it possible to grow wheat almost everywhere – everyone could eat white wheat bread
- than several years of bad harvests – sharm increase in wheat prices

parish wourkhouse – neighbouring parishes joined together – children working long hours, poor lawcollapsed – new law 1834

Family life
girls – feminine beauty of slim bodies, tight waists and a pale appearance, parents forced their daughters into tightly waisted clothes, and gave them only little food to avoid an unfashionably healthy appearance
parents still often decided on a suitable marriage for their children

- people started to believe that cruelty either to humans or animals was wrong
- human = was individual
- the use of child labor in the workhouse and in the new factories increased towards the end of the century
- children were easy to discipline and cheap
1788 – Regulating Act – to reduce the cruelty involved

Industrial revolution
money, labour a greater demand for goods, new power, and better transport
increased food production made it possible to feed large populations in the new towns
by the early eighteenth century simple machines were invented for basic jobs – mass production, the idea of division of labour – become an important part of the industrial revolution
at this time the use of coal for changing iron or into good quality iron or steel was perfected – Britain – leading iron producer
John Wilkinson – largest ironworks, he built the world’s first iron bridge over the River Severn 1779
James Watt – steam engine in 1769
other basic materials of the industrial revolution were cotton and woolen cloth
1764 – a spinning machine was invented which could do the work of several hand spinners
china
1799 Luddites – started to break up the machinery which put them out of work

Society and religion
John Wesley Anglican priest who traveled around the country preaching and teaching on horseback 1738
he visited the new villages and industrial towns which had no parish church – John Wesley’s Methodism
he was forced to leave the Church of England and start a new Methodist Church
Methodic chapels were more democratic than the Church of England
he certainly brought many people back to Christianity
other Christians also joined what became known as the evangelical revival

- the slave trade was abolished by law in 1807 but it took until 1833
- also limiting child labour to twelve hours each day 1802
1818 – a new law forbade the employment of children under tha age of nine
Revolution in france and the Napoleonic Wars
in Franc – bourgeoisie – middle class – leading the peasants and urban working classes

- the Whig Party was split – most feared Jacobinism
- William Pitt – the Younger wanted reform stayed with the radical Whig leader, Charles James Fox
- Fox’s party formed the link between the Whigs of the eighteenth cen. and the Liberals of the nineteenth century
1793 Britain went to war after France invaded the Low Countries, both countries were defeated by Napoleon, and forced to ally themselves with him – most of Europe fell under Napoleon’s control
- Admiral Horatio Nelson won over the French navy, near the coast of Egzpt, at Copenhagen, and finally near Spain, at Trafalgar in 1805
- Nelson was himself killed at Trafalgar
1805 – British army landed in Portugal to fight the French
- Napoleon weakened by his disastrous invasion of Russia – 1814
- Willengton with the help of the Prussian army finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium 1815

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
Britain was the workshop of the world
new middle class grown with indusrialisation
by the end of the century most men had the right to vote
Britain wanted two main things in Europe – a balance of power and free market in which its own industrial and trade superiority would give Britain a clear advantage
most of the colonies established in the nineteenth centurz were more to do with political control than with trading for profit

1815 - 1832
- need to defeat French
cheaper imported corn, the cost of bread rose quicklz and this led to increases in the price of almost everzthing {locally protect grown corn}
1830 – starving farmworker, people started hunt animals for food
1834 – new Poor Law
- people started to move into towns 1815-35, fast growing towns, harder to control

Reform
The Whigs understood better than the Tories the need to reform the law in order to improve social conditions
1832 – the Lords accepted the Reform Bill – was political recognition that Britain had become an urban society

Worker revolt
1824 workers were allowed to join together in unions
1834 – six farmworkers in the Dorset village of Topuddle joined together primising to be loyal to their union – punished – Tolpuddle Martzrs
1838 – People’s Charter, demanded rights – the vote for all adults, the right for a man without property of his own to be an MP, voting in secret, payment for MPs, and an election every year – all refused by the House of Commons
- Robert Peel – prime minister
1846 he abolished the unpopular Corn Law of 1815, which had kept the price of corn higher than necessary
he established a regular police force for London in 1829

Family life
new att