Gramatika

SEMINAR 1 – NOUNS – INTRODUCTION (SGEL 5.1 – 5.2; LEG – 2.12 – 2. 19;
Chalker - ex. 46,47; Grammar I – ex. 27 – 29, 30, 33)

Nouns: proper v. common - countable v. uncountable – abstract v. concrete
Partitives: quantity v. quality; Determiners with countable and uncountable nouns

I. BASIC DISTINCTIONS

Proper – e.g. Indonesia, Chicago


Concrete – e.g. a bun, a pig, a book
Nouns
Countable
(count)
Abstract – a difficulty, a remark, an idea

Common

Concrete – butter, gold, clothing

Uncountable
(noncount)
Abstract – music, business, courage

Proper nouns
- have unique reference – are used for a particular person, thing, place or idea –
determiner and number contrast cannot occur
e.g. personal names – Andrew, Mr. Smith, President Kennedy
forms of address – Mum, Dad, Auntie
geographical names – Asia, India, Wisconsin
place names – Madison Avenue, Regent Street
months, days of the week, festivals and seasons – April, Sunday, Easter


Common nouns
- any noun that is not the name of a particular person, place, thing, etc.
- may be either countable or uncountable or both!

Countable nouns (also called count) – denote individual countable entities
- we can use a/an in front of them - a book, an envelope
- they have a plural form and can be used in the question How many…?
- can be used with numbers – one stamp / two stamps
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Uncountable nouns (also called non-count) – denote undifferentiated mass or
continuum
- are not normally used with a / an – Sugar is expensive.
- do not normally have a plural form and can be used in the question How much…?
- are not normally used with a number in front of them


Concrete nouns
- are accessible to senses, observable, measurable
- can be countable: persons – a girl, a tulip
objects – a bottle
groups – an army, a crowd
units of measurement – a franc, a kilo
parts of a mass – a bit, a piece, a slice

- can be uncountable: materials, liquids, gases – cotton, milk, air
‘grains’ and ‘powder’ – barley, rice, dust, flour
activities – camping, drinking, eating
languages – Italian, Turkish

- some concrete nouns can be used as countable or uncountable:
e.g. glass - a) substance (material) – Glass is made from sand. /U/
b) a unit made of the substance – I broke a glass this morning. /C/
(i.e. a particular thing)

c) st specific – I heard a strange noise.
d) st in general – Noise is a kind of pollution

(for more examples and details see below – the section on Countability)


Abstract nouns
- nonobservable, nonmeasurable – countable: a hope, an idea, a situation, a denial;
also uncountable: honesty, anger, equality


II. COUNTABILITY

- the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns has a semantic (=is
related to meaning, e.g. glass U v. a glass C – different meaning) and
grammatical (= different determiners) significance

- countable nouns – must have a determiner (a, one, this, my…) in the singular,
it is not necessary in the plural: a book, books but not book on its own without a
determiner
- uncountable nouns do not need a determiner

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The following table illustrates the range or determiners used with nouns:


Common
Proper
Countable Uncountable C or U

a) Mark

book

music

brick (material)

b) the Mark

the book

the music

the brick

c) a Mark

a book

a music

a brick (one)

d) some Mark

some book

some music

some brick

e) Marks

books

musics

bricks


a) without a determiner
b) with the definite article
c) with the indefinite article
d) with the ‘partitive’ some
e) plural without a determiner


Note: there are some exceptions:
a) the Chicago of my youth (not Chicago in general as in – He lives in Chicago.)
b) The Kate I know wouldn’t do such a thing. (in special grammatical contexts)
c) A Mrs Tadley is waiting to see you. (= a certain person I don’t know)

Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable

A) countable v. uncountable
- as countable nouns they are used to refer to single items, things or st specific
- as uncountable nouns they refer to substances, materials, st in general

C U

a) He ate a whole chicken. Would you like some chicken?
b) I had a boiled egg for breakfast. There’s egg on your face.
c) I broke a glass this morning. Glass is made from sand.
d) I’ve got a new iron. Steel is an alloy of iron.
e) What do the papers say? Paper is made from wood.
f) A good education is expensive. Education should be free.
g) Try not to make a noise. Noise is a kind of pollution.
h) I need a light by my bed. Light travels faster than sound.
i) Are these drawings by Goya? I’m no good at drawing.
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j) She has a painting by Turner. Painting is my hobby.
k) She gave a reading of her poems. Reading is taught early.
l) There’s a hair in my soup. She has blonde hair.
m) The lambs were eating quietly. There is lamb on the menu today.
n) A coal fell from the fire and burnt the rug. They mine coal in this area.

In some cases there is little difference in meaning between the C and U noun
e.g. The house is built of brick.
He used bricks to build the house.

But! In some cases there is a notable difference in meaning:
e.g. I want an evening paper, please. (= a newspaper)
Wrap the parcel up in brown paper.

Sometimes the distinction is achieved by separate lexical items:

C U

a garment - clothing
a permit (a work permit) - permission
a weapon - arms
a suitcase - luggage
a machine - machinery
a household chore / chores - housework
a job - work
a note / coin - money


B) normally uncountable nouns (e.g. wine) used as countable

- if we refer to particular varieties, the noun is often preceded by an adjective - a
nice wine
- or there is some kind of specification - a wine of high quality
- plural is possible here – This region produces some awful wines as well as good ones.

- many words for drinks are uncountable when we think of them as substances (a)
but we can make them plural and use a / an to mean ‘a glass of…’ or use them
with numbers (b)

a) Beer / Coffee / Tea is expensive these days. / Do you want tea or coffee?
b) A beer / One beer, please.
Two teas and four coffees, please.
This is a nice coffee.
I like Brazilian coffees best.



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C) Nouns not normally countable in English (are often countable in other languages)
- the verb is singular, e.g. The news is rather bad today.

accommodation, advice, applause, assistance, baggage, camping, cash, chaos, chess,
clothing, conduct, courage, cutlery, dancing, dirt, employment, equipment, evidence, fun,
furniture, harm, health, homework, housing, information, leisure, litter, luck, luggage,
machinery, money, mud, music, news, nonsense, parking, pay, permission, photography,
poetry, pollution, produce, progress, publicity, research, rubbish, safety, scenery,
shopping, sightseeing, sunshine, transport, underwear, violence, weather, work

Note the differences:
C U
a) He gave her a box of chocolates. I love chocolate.
b) Don’t raise his hopes. There’s not much hope.
c) There are some differences. I don’t see much difference.
d) There was a sudden silence. We listened in silence.
e) I felt a pain in the knee. I didn’t feel much pain.
e) These facts show that…. The story is based on fact.
f) Don’t omit a single detail. He explained it in great detail.
g) She’s an old gossip. She is fond of gossip.
h) She was an old love of his. Love always forgives.
i)… many needlessly lost lives… He’s a man full of life.

Careful: Some normally uncountable nouns, esp. nouns referring to human emotions and
mental activity, can be used countably but only in the singular, e.g. knowledge,
importance, education, resistance

e.g We need a secretary with a first-class knowledge of German.
My parents wanted me to have a good education.
She has always had a deep distrust of strangers.

But mot uncountable nouns cannot be used with a / an at all. So, it´s wrong to say:
* a good health, a terrible weather, an excellent English, etc.

Task (prepare sentence of your own illustrating the differences in meaning, use a
dictionary if you like)
C U
1. fruit
2. glass
3. paper
4. iron
5. toast
6. matter
7. rule
8. lace
9. work
10. experience
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III. PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

- using ‘partitives’ we can refer to a single item (a loaf of bread) or a part of a
whole (a slice of bread) or a collection of items (a packet of biscuits)
- both countable and uncountable nouns can be used with them
- they may relate to a) quantity
b) quality
- the partition can be singular or plural – it affords a means of imposing number on
uncountable nouns – the partition is expressed by a countable noun (e.g. piece,
item) + an of-phrase (see below)


a) Quality partition
- mostly with ‘kind’ and ‘sort’, also ‘type’, ‘variety’ and ‘blend’ (e.g. coffee, tobacco)

e.g. a new kind of computer – several new kinds of computer (s)
one sort of silk tie – two sorts of silk tie (s)
a delicious kind of bread – some delicious kinds of bread
a fashionable sort of wallpaper – fashionable sorts of wallpaper

Note: two coffees might mean a) two cups of coffee
b) two types of coffee (depending on the context)

b) Quantity partition

e.g. a piece of cake - two pieces of cake
an item of clothing – several items of clothing
a blade of grass
some specks of dust
two slices of meat / bread
a flock of sheep / pigeons
a page of a book
two acts of a play
a kilo of potatoes
a yard of cloth

Some quantity partitives are general and some are specific (more descriptive and
restrictive):

General
- a piece of … - the most widely used partitive, either with concrete nouns (bacon,
chalk, paper) or abstract nouns (advice, information, news, research)
- a bit of … - generally implies a small quantity – a bit of rice
- an item of … - usually with abstract nouns (piece is also possible), it is not
generally used with concrete nouns – an item of cake (but an item of clothing),
an item of news = a news item

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Specific – typical with specific nouns

- an act of friendliness / mercy / malice/ cruelty / kindness
- an atom of truth (also: a grain of truth)
- a bag of flour
- a ball of string
- a bar of chocolate / soap
- a blade of grass
- a book of stamps
- a box of matches / tissues / chocolates
- a burst of applause / laughter / energy / thunder
- a carton of cigarettes
- a cloud of dust
- a crust of bread
- a cube of ice
- a dash of soda
- a drop of water / rain
- a fit of anger / energy / enthusiasm
- a flake of snow
- a flash of lightning
- a game of darts, chess
- a grain of rice / truth / sand / salt
- an item of news / clothing
- a jar of jam
- a joint of meat
- a jug of water
- a loaf of bread
- a lump of sugar
- a make of car / computer
- a metre of cloth
- a mug of cocoa
- a pair of gloves / jeans / pliers
- a peal of thunder
- a period of calm
- a pile of rubbish / books / plates
- a pinch of salt
- a pot of tea
- a rasher of bacon / ham
- a roll of paper / film / cloth
- a scrap of paper
- a sheet of paper
- a sip of tea
- a slice of bread / meat
- a species of insect
- a speck of dust
- a spoonful of medicine
- a square of chocolate
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- a stroke of luck
- a tube of toothpaste
- a wink of sleep
- a wisp of smoke / steam / hair

collective nouns
- an army of soldiers
- a bouquet of flowers
- a bunch of flowers
- a bunch of grapes
- a bunch of keys / radishes
- a crew of sailors
- a flock of sheep / birds
- a herd of cattle
- a hive of bees
- a mob of hooligans
- a pack of cards / a pack of wolves
- a panel of experts
- a set of cutlery
- a string of pearls
- a swarm of bees / tourists


measure partitives – denote length, area, volume, weight, etc.
- an acre of land
- a metre of cloth
- a mile of cable
- a pint of milk / beer

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QUESTIONS – NOUNS - INTRODUCTION (to answer after you have studied the
seminar handout carefully)
1. Explain the main differences between proper and common nouns, give examples
illustrating the differences and supporting your explanation.

2. What are the characteristic features of countable and uncountable nouns, give
examples.

3. What kinds of determiners can be used with a countable noun in the singular? Do we
need a determiner with a singular countable noun or not?

4. Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, give an example and explain the
difference.

5. Some nouns are normally uncountable (e.g. wine, coffee). Explain in what context they
are used as countable, give examples and explain them.

6. What are the roles of ‘partitives’? What is the pattern of a phrase with ‘a partitive’?

7. We differentiate two main types of ‘partition’. Give examples.

8. The quantity ‘partitives’ are of two kinds. Which ones? Give examples.
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SEMINAR 2 B – DETERMINERS – INTRODUCTION (SGEL 5.3 – 5.10; LEG – 5.1. –
5.30; Chalker – ex. 48 – 51; Grammar I. – 223 – 229, 232)


- 3 basic kinds of determiners: predeterminers (e.g. all, both, half)– central det. (e.g.
the, a, zero article) – postdeterminers (e.g. many, few, little)

- Nouns appear in noun phrases and the kind of reference depends on the accompanying
determiners – they affect the meaning of the noun, i.e. make it clear which particular
thing(s) we are referring to or how much of a substance we’re talking about.


e.g. Have you seen a bicycle? – indefinite reference
Have you seen the bicycle? – definite reference


- We distinguish 3 main classes of determiners – depending on their position in the noun
phrase in relation to each other:

1) predeterminers: e.g. half, double, all (as e.g. in all the people)
2) central determiners: e.g. the, a, this
3) postdeterminers: cardinal (e.g. seven) and ordinal (e.g. first) numerals, few, many (as
e.g. in the many passengers)

- If there are more determiners in one noun phrase – the order is 1) 2) 3) e.g. all the five boys,
all their trouble, all these last few days

- Some determiners help us to classify or identify, e.g. articles, demonstratives, possessives
and some help to indicate quantity, e.g. numerals, quantifiers (many, much)

I. CENTRAL DETERMINERS


1) the, a, zero

- the definite and indefinite article are the most common determiners
- relating definiteness to number we have the following system for C and U
common nouns

countable uncountable
definite the book the music
singular
indefinite a book music (zero art.)
definite the books /
plural
indefinite books (zero art.) /
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- singular countable nouns must normally have a determiner in front of them
(except e.g. ‘parallel constructions’ such as Man or boy, I don’t like him. Or
‘vocatives’ such as Look here, man.)

- coordinated noun phrase heads can share a determiner placed before the
first
head, e.g. the boys and (the) girls; a knife, (a) fork and (a) spoon

- the indefinite article a/an can be regarded as an unstressed numeral ‘one’:
e.g. a pound or two = one or two pounds

- the pronunciation, not the spelling determines the form of the indefinite article a /
an
→ a bird – an owl / an hour , a UNESCO official, an MP, an RP accent, a European
car

- the → the same spelling, but two pronunciations - / ə/ or /i/

!! when the articles are stressed for any reason (e.g. in slow speech and esp. in
AmE), they are pronounced /ði/, /ei/ or /æn/ - regardless of the 1
st
sound of the
noun
e.g. He would be the /ði/ man for the job.

- the indefinite article may mean ‘certain’, ‘a person giving his name as’, e.g. in
A Mr. Johnson came to see you last night.


2) Other central determiners

- are mutually exclusive, i.e. there cannot be more than one occurring before the noun
head,
e.g. a the boy, a some boy but e.g. ´all the many white houses’ is OK

a) demonstratives
- this, that – with singular C or U nouns – this picture, that music
- these, those – with plural C nouns – these desks, those tables

compare: What’s that thing over there? (a determiner)
That’s our computer. (a pronoun)

b) possessives – my, our, your, his, her, its, their

c) wh-determiners – which, whose, whichever, whatever, whosever as relatives,
indefinite relatives or interrogatives

e.g. Please come at noon, by which time I shall be back in my office.
The woman whose book you reviewed is on TV tonight.
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They will disapprove of whatever music is played.
Which house do you prefer? / What time is it?

d) negative determiner no
e.g. He has no car / no children.

Some determiners co-occur only with sg C nouns:

a) universal determiners ‘every’ and ‘each’
e.g. Each student is required to write two essays.

b) non-assertive dual det. ‘either’
e.g. There is no parking permitted on either side of the street. /You can park on either
side.

Note: Either day is OK. (sg)
But: I don’t think either of them is / are at home. (with the ´of phrase´ both sg and pl
verb can be used, the sg forms are preferred in careful written English; the same
rule
applies to ´neither of ´… )

c) negative dual det. ‘neither’
e.g. Parking is permitted on neither side of the street.
Can I come on Monday or Tuesday? – I’m afraid, neither day is possible.

!! Careful about ‘neither of…’ – Neither of my sisters is /are married. (the sg form
is fml)

Note: With subjects made of two or more items joined by (either) … or … or
(neither)
… nor the number (sg or pl) depends on the last element:
e.g. Either the station or the cinema is a good place to meet. (´are´ in infml.
Engl.)
Neither the president nor his representatives are to attend the meeting.

If the last item is singular and the previous item plural, we can use both a sing. or pl
verb
e.g. Either the teachers or the principal is (or are) to blame for the
accident.

Some determiners co-occur only with U and plural C nouns:

a) general assertive det. ´some´
e.g. I’d like some bread / rolls.
We have some nice bookshops here. (in the sg. : We have a good bookshop
here.)

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But: 1) ‘some’ meaning ‘a certain’ can also co-occur with sg C nouns, e.g. in:
Some old person asked for you on the phone.

2) stressed some + sg C (especially temporal), e.g. in: Some day he will get his
scholarship.

b) general non-assertive det. ´any´
e.g. We haven’t any bread / rolls left.

c) quantitative ´enough´
e.g. We have enough equipment / tools for the job.


Note: When stressed in some circumstances, any can occur with sg. C nouns, as in:
e.g. She will consider any offer – however small.
II. PREDETERMINERS

- precede those determiners with which they can co-occur
- are mutually exclusive (e.g. all both girls)
- have to do with quantification

We can distinguish the following sets:

a) all, both, half
b) the multipliers (double, twice, three times)
c) fractions (one third, one fifth)
d) such, what (as in Such a surprise. or What a fine day.)

Note the exception to the rule: ‘such’ and ‘what’ refer rather to quality than quantity, it’s
possible to combine , e.g. all such problems

Predeterminers in detail

a) All, both, half

- can occur before the articles (all the time, half a day), demonstratives (all this
time) and possessives (all