Gramatika

my time)

- as they are themselves quantifiers, they do not occur with quantitative
determiners: every, each, (n)either, some, any, no, enough

- they can be used pronominally – as independent pronouns (on their own)
e.g. All / Both the students sat for their exam all / both passed.

- can be followed by ‘an of-phrase’ which is optional with nouns but obligatory
with pronouns!!

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e.g. All / Both / Half (of) the students passed the test.
All of them / Both of them / Half of them failed.
+

all – occurs with pl. C nouns and U nouns
e.g. all the books / all books; all the music / all music

both – occurs only with pl. C nouns
e.g. both the books / both books

(both, and also either and neither are dual – i.e. they can refer to only two entities)

half – occurs with sg. and pl. C nouns and U nouns
e.g. half the book(s) / half a book; half the music but not half music

- half an hour = a half hour (little difference in meaning)

but: half a bottle of wine (= half of the contents)
a half bottle of wine (= a small bottle holding half the contents of an
ordinary bottle)

! all and both, but not half – can appear after the operator:
e.g. The students were all / both sitting for the exam.


Note: ‘Half ‘and articles

Normally we do not put ‘a’ or ‘the’ before ‘half’ (but there are exceptions)

e.g. He spends half (of) his time playing football.
Half (of) my students don’t understand this.
He works half a mile from the village.
How much is half a loaf of bread?
I’ve bought some chocolate. You can have half.

But: Would you like the big half or the small half? (=a particular half)
Could I have half a pound / a half pound of oranges? (with measurement)
I’ve been waiting for an hour and a half / one and a half hours.

All v. whole

- all + noun with no article usually has generic reference
e.g. All men are created equal. but All the men in the mine wore helmets. (=specific)

but not always! : I will see all students at 11 a.m. (this can’t be generic ref.)

- all (the) day / morning / week = the whole day / morning / week
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But: 1) in the negative- I haven’t seen him all day. (= zero article)

2) with the indef. article only ‘whole’ can be used – I spent a whole morning
studying.
(not ‘an all morning’)

- with abstract nouns the whole is often preferable to all the
e.g. the whole truth / distance

- with proper nouns without the definite article
e.g. all (of) Finland / London but the whole of Finland / London






b) Multipliers

1) multipliers + def. article (double the amount) , demonstrative (three times this
amount) or possessive (twice her age) – the multiplier applies to the noun so
determined (quantity)

e.g. twice / double the length (= a length twice as great)
three times her salary (= a salary three times as large)

2) multiplier + indef. art., each, every – the multiplier applies to a measure
(frequency)
e.g. once a day
four times every year
three times each year

also with every: We stopped once every mile.
once every three months
twice every hundred miles

c) Fractions (other than half)

- are usually followed by an of-phrase and are normally preceded by a numeral or
the indefinite article

e.g. She read half the book. / She read a quarter of the book.
She read two quarters of the book.

He did the work in one / a third (of) the time it took me.

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III. POSTDETERMINERS

- are used immediately after central determiners, if such determiners are present
e.g. The two young women were successful.

We distinguish the following classes:

a) cardinal numerals– e.g. my three children, the two books
b) ordinals –ordinal numerals e.g. first, fourth; and the so-called general ordinals:
last, other, another, additional
c) quantifiers – e.g. many, few, plenty of, little, a lot of


Where they co-occur, items from b) usually precede items from c) – e.g. last few days,
my last few possessions

When there are more numerals in a noun phrase – ordinals precede cardinals! – e.g.
first three days, the first two poems, another three weeks

Quantifiers

- (a) few, many, several + pl. C nouns
- (a) little, much + U nouns
- comparatives – fewer / the fewest;+ less / the least

Note: In an informal style ‘less’ is often used instead of ‘fewer’ with C nouns
eg. I make less mistakes now than I used to make. Some people consider
this
incorrect.

many – can be used in all kinds of sentences, i.e. positive, negative,
questions
much – usually only in Q and N, not in positive sentences unless they are
modified by ´so, too´ , etc.
a lot of - is like ´many´- possible in all kinds of sentences


few v. little

- with a they have a positive meaning – e.g. I play a few games. (=several)
She ate a little bread (=some)

- without a they have a negative meaning – e.g. I play few games. (=hardly any)
She ate little bread. (hardly any)

Note: ‘quite a few’ is similar in meaning to ‘rather a lot’
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e.g. He speaks quite a few languages.


Other quantifiers

- plenty of, a lot of, lots of + C or U nouns – a lot of friends / time

- a great deal of, a large quantity of, a small amount of + U nouns – a great deal of
time
not: a great deal of students

- a great / large number of + C nouns – a large number of students

Note!!: if we say ´a number of ´ we use a plural verb
But if we say ´the number of´ we use a singular verb

e.g. A number of refugees have been turned back at the border.
The number of books in the library has risen to over five million.


Assertive v. non-assertive

- some items are predominantly assertive – plenty of, a few, a little
- some items are predominantly non-assertive – much, many
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SEMINAR 2 – DETERMINERS – INTRODUCTION


QUESTIONS (to answer after you have studied the seminar handout carefully)


1. Give an example of a sentence including a noun phrase which has
a) definite reference
b) indefinite reference

2. In two cases ‘the’ is pronounced as /ði/, explain when and why.


3. Explain why the noun phrases in italics do contain or do not contain indefinite
article:

a) She is looking forward to being a grandmother.
b) We’re having terrible weather.
c) A child needs plenty of love.
d) Take a hat and coat with you.
e) A Mr Wingate phoned and left a message for you.’


4. Explain the use of a/ an in: a house v. an heir


5. Determiners such as ‘this, every, each’ are mutually exclusive. What does it
mean?


6. We can say ‘either man’ but not ‘either music’ – explain why:


7. What nouns are used with ‘both’ and ‘neither’, and ‘every’ and ‘each? Consider
the following sentences:

a) Every / Each student will be interviewed today.
b) Both the suggestions were accepted.
c) Both his brothers speak Spanish.
d) Each student has to buy this book.
d) Neither applicant was successful.


8. Multipliers refer to quantity or frequency. Give examples.

9. What kinds of nouns are used with ‘a great deal / amount / number of’?
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SEMINAR 3 – ARTICLES with COMMON NOUNS (SGEL 5.11 – 5.24; LEG –
3.1.- 3.29; Chalker – ex. 52 – 54; Grammar I – ex. 1 – 8, 19 - 20)


- the indefinite article – the definite article – zero article


In discussing the use of the articles, we must distinguish between specific and generic
reference:
e.g. A lion and two tigers are sleeping in the cage. (= specific r. – we have in mind
something specific)
X
Tigers are dangerous animals. (=generic r. – not particular tigers, but tigers in
general)

Note: generic ref. can be expressed in the following ways:

a) A tiger can be dangerous. (=any tiger in general)

But not! A tiger is becoming extinct. → The tiger is becoming extinct. or
Tigers are becoming extinct.

b) Tigers can be dangerous.
c) The tiger can be dangerous. (´the´- the representative of the species)


But not! Tiger can be dangerous. – zero article is possible only with U nouns:

Velvet makes an excellent curtain material.
Research is vital for human progress.
Also: Mary is studying dance.



I. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE – A / AN

1) Classification

a) general statements
e.g. An architect is a person who designs buildings. / A rose is a flower.

b) definitions
e.g. A cat is a domestic animal. (or Cats are domestic animals. – is also possible)

c) origins
e.g. He’s a Frenchman. / an American. (also: He’s French / American. )

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d) occupation
e.g. She’s a doctor. / My father is an architect.
She became a linguist.

e) religion
e.g. She’s a Catholic. (also: She’s Catholic. = an adjective)

f) politics
e.g. He’s a Republican. (also: She’s Republican. = an adj.)

Exceptions – zero article:

- the verb ‘turn’ expressing a change of state, e.g. in He turned traitor. (not ‘a traitor’)
- some idioms, e.g. They took him prisoner.
- the verb ‘become’ if there is only one person in such position, e.g. He became general director.



2) Quantity – a / an is used to mean ‘only one’

a) one – we are not specifying any particular thing or person
e.g. I’d like an apple.
I met a friend of hers. (= one of her friends)

!! b) when st is mentioned for the first time – since it hasn’t been mentioned before, it is
unfamiliar to the speaker or hearer

e.g. looked up and saw a plane. The plane flew over the trees. (anaphoric ref.)


Compare: I am just about to move into an apartment quite near where you live.
(= an apartment – there are more apartments like that)

I am just about to move into the apartment directly above yours.
(= we know exactly which – the one above yours)

c) reference to measurement
- price – e.g. 80 p a kilo / per kilo
- distance + speed – e.g. 40 km an hour / per hour
- frequency – twice a day / per day

Note:

a) We walked for a mile or two. / We walked one or two miles.
b) The water is only a foot and a half deep. / …. only one and a half feet deep.
Other uses:

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- a / an after what / such with C nouns

- exclamations – e.g. What a surprise! What an interesting story!
But! What beautiful weather! (‘weather’ is uncountable)
What lovely shoes! (plural)

- to emphasize degree – e.g. My boss is such an idiot!

- what a lot … in exclamations – e.g. What a lot of flowers! What a lot of trouble!


- pairs of nouns

– the nouns are considered to accompany each other naturally
– a / an is used before the first noun of a pair

e.g. a cup and saucer
a hat and coat
a knife and fork

- body parts

- if they are multiple, they can be individually referred to with a:

e.g. Jack has a broken finger. but Jack has bumped his head.


- illnesses / conditions

1) the use of a / an is compulsory with: cold, headache, sore throat, broken leg,
fever, temperature – e.g. I’ve got a cold.

2) the use of a / an is optional with: catch (a) cold; have (a) backache, stomach ache,
toothache, earache

3) in the plural – no article is used
e.g. measles, mumps

4) uncountable illnesses – no article is used
e.g. flu, hepatitis, cancer, pneumonia, diabetes, appendicitis







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II. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE – THE

- the marks a phrase as definite – i.e. we refer to st that can be identified uniquely thanks to
the knowledge of context or general knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer

e.g. immediate situation – the reference of ‘the’ is derived from the ‘extralinguistic ‘ situation
(st is visible, present, obvious) as in:

The roses are beautiful. (= said in a garden)
Have you visited the castle? (= said in a given town)
Have you fed the cat? (= our cat)
Beware of the dog! (it doesn’t have to be visible at the moment of speaking)

or larger situation – the reference is based on general knowledge of the ‘larger situation’
that speaker and hearer share as in:
the Prime Minister (in a particular country everyone knows who we mean)
the Pope, the moon, the sky, the sun, the Equator, the world, the Navy, etc.

1) Classifying

a) general statements

e.g. The cobra is dangerous. (= a certain kind of … / as a species)

also: Cobras are dangerous. (= the whole class)
A cobra is a very poisonous snake. (= as an example of the class)

b) the group as a whole – the + nationality adj.

e.g. The British prefer staying at home. (= the British people in general)
The Japanese admire the traditions of the Chinese.

c) the group as a whole – the + plural names

e.g. The Price sisters have opened a boutique.
The Europeans are a long way from political unity.
The Liberals want electoral reform.

d) specified groups – the + collective noun or plural C

e.g. the police, the public, the unions

e) the + adjective

e.g. the blind, the rich, the unemployed, the homeless, the disabled, the poor, the
elderly, the sick, the injured, the deaf, the dead, the young

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2) Specifying

- we use ‘the’ when the listener or reader can already identify what we are referring
to, i.e. ‘the’ shows that the noun has been specified by the context / situation or
grammatically (anaphoric and cataphoric reference)


a) anaphoric reference – ‘anaphora’ (=back reference)
←
e.g. Singleton is a quiet village near Chichester. The village has a population of
a few hundred people.

In the first sentence the village was mentioned for the first time – a quiet village
In the following sentence we already know which village we are talking about –
we have already specified it in the first sentence. (=direct anaphora)

the anaphoric ref. can also be indirect as in:

e.g. I lent Bill a valuable book but when he returned it, the cover was filthy and
the pages were torn. (= we didn’t mention a cover and pages before, but we
know that a book has a cover and pages)


b) cataphoric reference (is ‘the opposite’ of anaphoric = the identity will be
established by what follows the head noun, i.e. an of-phrase, a relative clause or
non-finite clause:
→
e.g. I am trying to find the book that I wanted to show you.
Where’s the magazine I brought this morning?
The letters on the shelf are for you.
The girls sitting over there are my cousins.
The wines of France are among the best in the world.


c) specifying with a limited context

- the context is limited enough for the listener (or reader) to identify who
or what is referred to

e.g.

people: Who’s at the door? – It’s the postman.
places: Where’s Jenny? – She’s gone to the butcher’s / to the supermarket.
things: Pass me the salt, please.

parts of a whole:
a human body – He has a pain in the chest. / I grabbed her by the arm.
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a room – the ceiling, the door, the floor
an object – the back, the centre, the top
a town – the shops, the station
an appliance – the on/off switch


Note: We also use the when we do not refer to a specific place or thing:

e.g. go to the cinema / theatre / doctor’s
the country / mountains / seaside, sea (go to sea = become a sailor)
the paper (=newspaper) as in You’ll probably see it in the paper tomorrow.
the news / the radio / the press
Do you prefer the town or the country?
I love listening to the wind.

Compare: He lives near the sea.
Is it dangerous to swim in the sea?
He works on ships. He’s at sea most of the time.

I listen to the radio a lot but I don’t watch television.
I heard it on the radio, and then I watch the news on television.

Locations which are ‘one of a kind’:

e.g. the earth / sky / sun / moon / solar system / the galaxy , the universe

But:
There are millions of starts in space. (not ´the space´)

Uniqueness:

e.g. the Pope, the President , the government, the Equator


Other uses:

- the in time expressions – e.g. the beginning, the middle, the end, the first / last, the
next, the following day, in the morning / afternoon / evening

- seasons – the is optional – e.g. We usually have a holiday in (the) summer.


But: if we refer to a particular season – The spring of last year was cold.

- dates – the is spoken but not written

e.g. I’ll see you on May 24
th
. (spoken as May the 24
th
)
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I’ll see you on 24
th
May. (spoken as the 24
th
of May)

- fixed time expressions

e.g. all the while, at the moment, for the time being, in the end, in the meantime, etc.

- superlatives
e.g. It’s the worst play I have ever seen.

- musical instruments – I play the piano.

- fixed phrases – The sooner the better.

- fixed expressions – do the shopping

- restrictive items – e.g. sole, only, same – She was the sole survivor of the crash.

- the + adjective – the blind, the unemployed

- ordinals – the first
But! Let me have a third guess.


III. ZERO ARTICLE

- with plural countables: Girls do better than boys at school.
- uncountables – Butter makes you fat.
- proper nouns – John lives in London.
- noun + number – Room 12, Platform 5, Size 43

The class as a whole – general statements

a) zero article + plural C nouns

people: Women are fighting for their rights.
places: Museums are closed on Mondays.
food: Beans contain a lot of fibre.
occupations: Doctors always support each other.
nationalities: Italians make delicious ice cream.
animals: Cats do not like cold weather.
insects: Ants are found all over this area.
plants: Trees don’t grow in the Antarctic.
products: Watches have become very accurate.

b) zero article + U nouns (always singular)

food: Refined foods like sugar should be avoided.
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drink: Water must be pure if it is to be drunk.
substances: Oil is essential for the manufacture of plastic.
collections: Money makes the world go round.
colours: Red is my favourite colour.
activities: Smoking is bad for the health.
other activities: Business has been improving steadily this year.
sports, games: Football is played all over the world.
abstract: Life is short. / That’s life.
politics: Capitalism is by-product of free enterprise.
languages: English is a world language.


Unique items

- first names – e.g. Elizabeth was my mother’s name.
- surnames – e.g. These tools are made by Jackson and son.
- full names –e.g. Elizabeth Brown
- titles – e.g. May I introduce you to Captain / Colonel / Major Rogers?
- days, months, seasons, holidays (Christmas)
- subjects – e.g.