materiály ke zkoušce

a woman. Most of the subsequent sonnets describe the ups and downs of the relationship, culminating with an affair between the poet and the Dark Lady. The relationship seems to end when the Fair Youth succumbs to the Lady's charms.
There have been many attempts to identify the Friend. Shakespeare's one-time patron, the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Wriothesley%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Southampton" \o "Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton" Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton is the most commonly suggested candidate, although Shakespeare's later patron,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herbert%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Pembroke" \o "William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke" William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, has recently become popular  HYPERLINK "http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,,1645660,00.html" \o "http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,,1645660,00.html" [1]. Both claims have much to do with the dedication of the sonnets to 'Mr. W.H.', "the only begetter of these ensuing sonnets": the initials could apply to either Earl. However, while Shakespeare's language often seems to imply that the 'friend' is of higher social status than himself, this may not be the case. The apparent references to the poet's inferiority may simply be part of the rhetoric of romantic submission. An alternative theory, most famously espoused by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" \o "Oscar Wilde" Oscar Wilde's short story ' HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Arthur_Savile%27s_Crime_and_Other_Stories" \l "The_Portrait_of_Mr._W._H." \o "Lord Arthur Savile's Crime and Other Stories" The Portrait of Mr. W.H.' notes a series of puns that may suggest the sonnets are written to a boy actor called  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hughes_%28Mr._W._H.%29" \o "William Hughes (Mr. W. H.)" William Hughes; however, Wilde's story acknowledges that there is no evidence for such a person's existence.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Butler_%28novelist%29" \o "Samuel Butler (novelist)" Samuel Butler believed that the friend was a seaman, and recently Joseph Pequigney ('Such Is My love') an unknown commoner.
[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shakespeare%27s_sonnets&action=edit§ion=5" \o "Edit section: The Dark Lady" edit] The Dark Lady
Sonnets 127-152 are addressed to a woman commonly known as the 'Dark Lady' because her hair is said to be black and her skin dusky. These sonnets are explicitly sexual in character, in contrast to those written to the "Fair Youth". It is implied that the "I" of the sonnets and the Lady had a passionate affair, but that she was unfaithful, perhaps with the "Fair Youth". The poet self-deprecatingly describes himself as balding and middle-aged at the time of the affair.
Many attempts have been made to identify the "Dark Lady" with historical personalities, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Fitton" \o "Mary Fitton" Mary Fitton or the poet  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia_Lanier" \o "Emilia Lanier" Emilia Lanier, who was Rowse's favoured candidate. Some readers have suggested that the reference to her 'dusky' skin suggests that she may have been  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_people" \o "Spanish people" Spanish, or even  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" \o "Africa" African (for example in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Burgess" \o "Anthony Burgess" Anthony Burgess's novel about Shakespeare,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_Like_the_Sun:_A_Story_of_Shakespeare%27s_Love_Life" \o "Nothing Like the Sun: A Story of Shakespeare's Love Life" Nothing Like the Sun). Many people, however, continue to maintain that the Dark Lady is merely a work of fiction and never really existed in real life; they suggest that the 'darkness' of the lady is not intended literally, but rather represents the 'dark' forces of physical lust as opposed to the ideal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_love" \o "Platonic love" Platonic love associated with the "Fair Youth".
[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shakespeare%27s_sonnets&action=edit§ion=6" \o "Edit section: The Rival Poet" edit] The Rival Poet
The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rival_Poet" \o "Rival Poet" Rival Poet is sometimes identified with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" \o "Christopher Marlowe" Christopher Marlowe or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Chapman" \o "George Chapman" George Chapman. However, there is no hard evidence that the character had a real-life counterpart.
[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shakespeare%27s_sonnets&action=edit§ion=7" \o "Edit section: Themes" edit] Themes
Shakespeare's sonnets are frequently more earthy and sexual than contemporary sonnet sequences by other poets. One interpretation is that Shakespeare's Sonnets are in part a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastiche" \o "Pastiche" pastiche or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody" \o "Parody" parody of the three centuries-long tradition of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrarch" \o "Petrarch" Petrarchan love sonnets; in them, Shakespeare consciously inverts conventional gender roles as delineated in Petrarchan sonnets to create a more complex and potentially troubling depiction of human love. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" \l "_note-4#_note-4" \o "" [5] Shakespeare also violated many sonnet rules which had been strictly obeyed by his fellow poets: he speaks on human evils that do not have to do with love ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_66" \o "Sonnet 66" 66), he comments on political events ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sonnet_124&action=edit" \o "Sonnet 124" 124), he makes fun of love ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sonnet_128&action=edit" \o "Sonnet 128" 128), he parodies beauty ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_130" \o "Sonnet 130" 130), he plays with gender roles ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_20" \o "Sonnet 20" 20), he speaks openly about sex ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sonnet_129&action=edit" \o "Sonnet 129" 129) and even introduces witty pornography ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sonnet_151&action=edit" \o "Sonnet 151" 151).
[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shakespeare%27s_sonnets&action=edit§ion=8" \o "Edit section: Legacy" edit] Legacy
Coming as they do at the end of conventional Petrarachan sonneteering, Shakespeare's sonnets can also be seen as a prototype, or even the beginning, of a new kind of 'modern' love poetry. During the eighteenth century, their reputation in England was relatively low; as late as 1805,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Critical_Review" \o "The Critical Review" The Critical Review could still credit Milton with the perfection of the English sonnet. As part of the renewed interest in Shakespeare's original work that accompanied  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism" \o "Romanticism" Romanticism, the sonnets rose steadily in reputation during the nineteenth century. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" \l "_note-5#_note-5" \o "" [6]
The outstanding cross-cultural importance and influence of the sonnets is demonstrated by the large number of translations that have been made of them. To date in the German-speaking countries alone, there have been 68 complete translations since 1784. There is no major written language into which the sonnets have not been translated, including Latin HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" \l "_note-6#_note-6" \o "" [7], Turkish, Japanese, Kiswahili, Esperanto HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" \l "_note-7#_note-7" \o "" [8], and even Klingon











































King Lear
King Lear is generally regarded as one of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare" \o "William Shakespeare" William Shakespeare's greatest  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy" \o "Tragedy" tragedies. It is based on the legend of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leir_of_Britain" \o "Leir of Britain" King Leir, a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch" \o "Monarch" king of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Iron_Age" \o "British Iron Age" pre- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britain" \o "Roman Britain" Roman Britain.
After the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Restoration" \o "English Restoration" Restoration, the play was often modified by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre" \o "Theatre" theatre practitioners who disliked its  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism" \o "Nihilism" nihilistic flavour, but, since  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II, it has come to be regarded as one of Shakespeare's supreme achievements. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering and kinship on a cosmic scale.
There are two distinct versions of the play: The True Chronicle of the History of the Life and Death of King Lear and His Three Daughters, which appeared in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarto" \o "Quarto" quarto in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1608" \o "1608" 1608, and The Tragedy of King Lear which appeared in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Folio" \o "First Folio" First Folio in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1623" \o "1623" 1623, a more theatrical version. The two texts are commonly printed in a conflated version, although many modern editors have argued that each version has its individual integrity.
The part of King Lear has been played by many great actors, but despite the fact that Lear is an old man, it is usually not taken on by actors at an advanced age, because it is so strenuous both physically and emotionally.

BUNYAN
Bunyan wrote  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress" \o "The Pilgrim's Progress" The Pilgrim's Progress in two parts, the first of which was published in London in 1678 and the second in 1684. He had begun the work in his first period of imprisonment, and probably finished it during the second. The earliest edition in which the two parts combined in one volume came in 1728. A third part falsely attributed to Bunyan appeared in 1693, and was reprinted as late as 1852. Its full title is The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come.
The Pilgrim's Progress is arguably one of the most widely-known  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegory" \o "Allegory" allegories ever written, and has been extensively translated into other languages.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant" \o "Protestant" Protestant  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionaries" \o "Missionaries" missionaries commonly translated it as the first thing after the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" \o "Bible" Bible.
Two other successful works of Bunyan's are less well-known: The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), an imaginary biography, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Holy_War&action=edit" \o "The Holy War" The Holy War (1682), an allegory. A third book which reveals Bunyan's inner life and his preparation for his appointed work is Grace Abounding to the chief of sinners (1666). It is very prolix and, being all about Bunyan himself, would seem intolerably egotistical except that his motive in writing it was plainly to exalt the Christian concept of grace and to comfort those passing through experiences like his own.
The above works have appeared in numerous editions, and are accessible to all. There are several noteworthy collections of editions of The Pilgrim's Progress, e.g., in the British Museum and in the New York Public Library, collected by the late James Lenox.
Bunyan became a popular preacher as well as a prolific author, though most of his works consist of expanded sermons. In theology he was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan" \o "Puritan" Puritan, but there was nothing gloomy about him. The portrait his friend Robert White drew, which has often been reproduced, shows the attractiveness of his true character. He was tall, had reddish hair, prominent nose, a rather large mouth, and sparkling eyes.
He was no scholar, except of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Bible" \o "English Bible" English Bible, but he knew scripture thoroughly. He was also influenced by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther" \o "Martin Luther" Martin Luther's Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians, in the translation of 1575.
Some time before his final release from prison Bunyan became involved in a controversy with Kiffin, Danvers, Deune, Paul, and others. In 1673 he published his Differences in Judgement about Water-Baptism no Bar to Communion, in which he took the ground that "the Church of Christ hath not warrant to keep out of the communion the Christian that is discovered to be a visible saint of the word, the Christian that walketh according to his own light with God." While he owned "water baptism to be God's ordinance," he refused to make "an idol of it," as he thought those did who made the lack of it a ground for disfellowshiping those recognized as genuine Christians.
Kiffin and Paul published a response in Serious Reflections (London, 1673), in which they argued in favor of the restriction of the Lord's Supper to baptized believers, and received the approval of Henry Danvers in his Treatise of Baptism (London, 1673 or 1674). The controversy resulted in the Particular (Calvinistic) Baptists leaving the question of communion with the unbaptized open. Bunyan's church admitted  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedobaptist" \o "Pedobaptist" pedobaptists to fellowship and finally became pedobaptist ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregationalism" \o "Congregationalism" Congregationalist).
Bunyan has the distinction of having written, in The Pilgrim's Progress, probably the most widely read book in the English language, and one which has been translated into more tongues than any book except the Bible. The charm of the work, which gives it wide appeal, lies in the interest of a story in which the intense imagination of the writer makes characters, incidents, and scenes alike live in that of his readers as things actually known and remembered by themselves, in its touches of tenderness and quaint humour, its bursts of heart-moving eloquence, and its pure,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiomatic" \o "Idiomatic" idiomatic English. Macaulay has said, "Every reader knows the straight and narrow path as well as he knows a road on which he has been backwards and forwards a hundred times," and he adds that "In England during the latter half of the seventeenth century there were only two minds which possessed the imaginative faculty in a very eminent degree. One of these minds produced the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost" \o "Paradise Lost" Paradise Lost, the other The Pilgrim's Progress." Bunyan wrote about 60 books and tracts, of which The Holy War ranks next to The Pilgrim's Progress in popularity, while Grace Abounding is one of the most interesting pieces of biography in


I
1. From fairest creatures we desire increase,2. That thereby beauty's rose might never die,3. But as the riper should by time decease,4. His tender heir might bear his memory:5. But thou contracted to thine own bright eyes,6. Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel,7. Making a famine where abundance lies,8. Thy self thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel:9. Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament,10. And only herald to the gaudy spring,11. Within thine own bud buriest thy content,12. And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding:13. Pity the world, or else this glutton be,14. To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee.
Vše, co je krásné, má se rozmnožovat,
aby jas růže nikdy nepohas,
třebaže jednou zestárne a skoná,
v potomcích najde dědice svých krás.
Ty ve svých očích vidíš zářný vzor,
zříš jen svou zář, čímž požíráš sám sebe,
hojností hýříš, šíříš hladomor,
sám v sobě krutého máš nepřítele.
Jsi výkvět světa, dokud svěžest máš,
marnivé jaro se ti v tváři zračí,
sám sebe ale v sobě pohřbíváš,
lakomec jsi, co skrblením jen ztrácí.
Splať světu dluh – ten žrout snad nechceš být,
co jako hrob chce sebe pohltit.
In first 17 Sonnets Shakespeare repeats the platonic idea, which was very popular and known in Renaissance, that the liaison of a men and a woman is procreation. All the people have generative instinct in their bodies and souls as well. We also can find narcissistic motifs inspired by Ovidius’ Metamorphoses.

As the opening sonnet of the sequence, this one obviously has especial importance. It appears to look both before and after, into the future and the past. It sets the tone for the following group of so called 'procreation' sonnets 1-17. In addition, many of the compelling ideas of the later sonnets are first sketched out here: the youth's beauty; his vulnerability in the face of time's cruel processes; his potential for harm, to the world, and to himself, (perhaps also to his lovers); nature's beauty, which is dull in comparison to his; the threat of disease and cankers; the folly of being miserly; the need to see the world in a larger sense than through one's own restricted vision.
'Fair youth, be not churlish, be not self-centred, but go forth and fill the world with images of yourself, with heirs to replace you. Because of your beauty you owe the world a recompense, which now you are devouring as if you were an enemy to yourself. Take pity on the world, and do not, in utter selfish miserliness, allow yourself to become a perverted and self destructive object who eats up his own posterity'.


1. increase = procreation, offspring. A reference also to the increase of the harvest, by which one seed of corn becomes many. There is a general presumption in husbandry that the best stock must always be used in breeding, otherwise there is an overall decline and failure in productivity. The fairest creatures are therefore the fairest cattle, the best plants, the most excellent poultry, and so on.. Whatever in fact is as good as, or an improvement on the previous generation. Basically this is a farming or agricultural metaphor. In his later years Shakespeare seems to have been interested in the nature/nurture discussion.
2. thereby = in that way, by that means, as a result (of your intervention). beauty's rose = The rose was symbolic of all things beautiful. By reproducing itself it could, in a sense, become immortal.
There is no obvious connection between the two thoughts expressed in these two lines, other than that they are both noticeably pastoral. The fairest creatures call to mind things of natural beauty, but the desiring of increase from them is very much a farming metaphor suggestive of stock cattle, which is not very flattering to the fair youth. The transition to beauty's rose lifts the thought once more, but it is not obvious that desiring increase of fair creatures guarantees that the rose of beauty will live forever. However, from what follows in this and succeeding sonnets, we are made aware that the crucial question is that of the youth preserving his lineage, as all families, especially noble ones, were expected to do. In that sense the thought is commonplace, and there is nothing odd or unusual (as has sometimes been suggested) about the speaker urging his friend to observe the common rule of procreation for his and posterity's sake. The idea dates back to antiquity, and no doubt beyond.

3. riper = older, more mature, (person, plant, thing) more ready for harvesting. by time decease = die in the course of time.

4. tender = young, delicate, soft. (Often applied to young animals). bear his memory = also with the sense of 'bearing a child', the heir carries on the memory of parents through the generations.

5. contracted = being contracted to, under obligation to (in a legal sense). It also conveys the sense of compressed, curtailed, restricted. ...and our whole kingdom To be contracted in one brow of woe, However it is difficult to see exactly what contracted to thine own bright eyes means, although the glossarists cite the example of Narcissus from classical literature, who died having fallen in love with his own beauteous reflection in water. The general sense seems to be that of one who is perpetually pre-occupied with his own concerns, looking upon himself, and being under contract to pursue his own interests.

6. Feed'st thy light's flame = provides sustenance for the flame that gives light. Candles, tapers and oil lamps were the only source of light in Shakespeare's day.self-substantial fuel = fuel from its own body. Although the general sense of this line seems to be that of a fire or lamp burning up fuel, there are difficulties of interpretation. After all, how is a candle meant to feed itself, other than with itself? The suggestion is that the fuel should be renewable. It implies a criticism of the youth, who is intent on devouring himself and his future hope.

7. famine - emptiness