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Studijní materiály
Zjednodušená ukázka:
Stáhnout celý tento materiálHandout No 1
Language, speech, production of speech sounds
Language and its definitions:
( Hornby´s dictionary:
Language: is a human and non instinctive method of
communicating ideas, feelings and desires by means of a system
of sounds and sound symbols.
language - method of communicating ideas (other ways of
communication...)
- system of sounds
- system of sound symbols (theory of symbols...)
Names: Ferdinand de Saussure - langue
- parole
- langage
Phonetics and phonology - both deal with sound (sounds) and its (their) various aspects
Phonetics - aspects of sound realisation and physical perception
Phonology - aspects of sound distribution and function
Sound - the nature of speech sound
- how the sound is produced
- lungs - larynx - pharynx - vocal tract
- articulators (articulatory phonetics)
Division of sounds – various point of view:
- place of articulation
- manner of articulation
- according its distribution - vowels x consonants
(this division can be derived from the way of
articulation as vowels are sounds created more or less without
any obstruction in the air stream and consonants have some kind
of obstruction)
CHART of VOWELS and Cardinal Vowels :
Cardinal vowels: - extreme position
- do not exist in real speech
- reference points
De Saussure´s view of the language (*1857 - + 1913) - lived in
Switzerland, professor at university in Geneva, terms introduced
by him: synchronic - diachronic, language - parole, paradigmatic
- syntagmatic. De Saussure is one of the fundamental linguists in
the structural linguistic school.
Handout No:2
Vowels - short, long , Diphtongs, Triphtongs
Vowel chart
Production of vowels (diphtongs and triphtongs) - tongue has got
the main function + position of the lips (could be spread,
rounded or in normal position)
Vowels - short vowels: i, e, ae, a, o, u.
- all of them are "relatively" short that means their
length can differ
* i - words like "lid", "hit", "pin",
- distribution - all positions, in final position only
unstressed
* e - "get", "met", "men"
- distribution - all positions, never in final position
* ae - "mat", "hat", "bat"
- distribution - never in final position
* a - "shut", "but", "cut"
- distribution - never in final position
* o - "hot", "dot", "shop"
- distribution - never in final position
* u - "put", "push", "pull"
- distribution - only in middle position (final position
only in prepositions to and into)
*** mixed vowel - schwa - is a centric vowel
- words like "attend", "police",
- distribution - all positions but never stressed
- description - it is mid (half way between close and open)Ť
and it is central (half-way between front and back)
-long vowels: i:,a:,o:,u:,e: (nejde o české dlouhé e!!)
length: all of them are "relatively" long which means, their
length differs according to the sound around them
distribution: - never before nasal n,
diphtongs: - are sounds, where movement (or glide) from one
vowel to another is realised. In diphtongs each vowel in terms
of its length participates a bit different. The first one is
much longer than the second one. Loudness decreases in the
second vowel.
- total number of diphtongs - 8
- division of diphtongs: - centring (ending in schwa)- ie,ee,ue
- closing ending in i - ei,ai,oi
ending in u - eu,au
Triphtongs: - we do not consider them as one sound. They are
composed of a diphtong + a pure vowel
- combinations are: closing diphtongs + schwa
- examples: player, royal, hour
Handout No.3
Phonation, Plosives
Phonation - is vibration of vocal folds (chords)
Explanation from physical and physiological points of view:
- breathing enables phonation (voicing). Respiratory system
supplies vocal tract with the air stream (air flow) under
a certain pressure.
- as the rib cage moves upwards and outwards the lungs expand
and take in more air. When the rib cage returns to its initial
position, the air is expelled.
- to make sound we must obstruct the air flow by making
an obstruction or a stricture
- the first place where this kind of obstacle is created is the
beginning of the vocal tract - in larynx
LARYNX - (“Adam´s Apple”) is placed in the neck and is made of
cartilage, shape of a half ring pointed in the front part.
Inside this half ring vocal folds are housed. The opening between
The folds is called glottis.
GLOTTIS - four basic positions:
- wide apart - normal breathing, or sounds like p,t,k
- narrow glottis - fricative sound - like h
- edges touching - air passes and causes vibration
- tightly closed - glottal stop, glottal plosive
Voice can change during phonation:
- there are three variables that describe different types of
change:
a) intensity - shouting of whispering (speaking quietly)
b) frequency - the faster vibration of the vocal folds is
the higher frequency the voice has
c) quality - different type of sound - harsh, creaky,
sharp...
Plosives:
Manner of articulation:
- articulators form a stricture (partial, total)
- air is under a certain pressure and then released - this is
called plosion - this is the part that we can hear
++++++++
Three phases of articulation:
- closure phase
- hold phase
- release phase
++++++++
Plosives in English: p,t,k,b,d,g, and glottal stop ?
Distribution: in all positions of a word
Initial position - aspiration in p,t,k
Handout No.4
Phoneme x sound, Lenis x fortis
Fricatives, Africates
Sound - the smallest segment of speech (which is a continuous stream of sounds.)Each sound is characteristic with a set of distinctive features.
Distinctive feature - is a minimal contrastive unit that serves to explain how the sound system of language is organised. They can be detected on spectrogram (acoustic terms) but are also described with some reference to articulatory criteria.
Phonemes - sounds, that are described from the phonological point of view. They are abstract units and together are phonemic system of language. Phonemes can distinguish meaning of words.
Allophones - variants of a phoneme, phonetic shape of a phoneme that can occur in a word (sentence) and that depends mainly on its position in relation to other sounds.
Free variation - two or more different realisations of a phoneme on the same place in a word. Each of them can be substituted by the other one without effecting the meaning of the word.
Complementary distribution - means that there exist a strict separation of places where particular realisation occurs.
relationships:
phoneme - abstraction, allophone - realisation of a phoneme can be free variation and complementary distribution), difference between allophones described by phonological rules
* similarly in grammar - morpheme, allomorph
LENIS x FORTIS
- description of a sound as voiced or voiceless is sometimes inadequate. We have to take into account the effort with which we pronounce the particular sound. The effort corresponds more or less with the tension of muscles in larynx.
lenis - tension is weaker, glottis less open, vocal folds vibrate
fortis - tension is stronger, glottis more open, voc. folds do not vibrate
Phonemic x Phonetic symbols
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) - internationally accepted set of symbols (phonetic symbols) used for individual sounds - their realisation. Nearly each sound of a human speech can be described by this alphabet.
For each individual language there exist a set of sounds,that are used in that particular language. Their abstract forms are phonemes (phonemic system) which represent the sound system of the mentioned language.
Thus for English the whole phonemic system consists of 44 phonemes. (see fig. 1).
Fricatives
Sometimes called "spirants". The sound is produced in a narrowing in the mouth cavity. The air stream escapes through this narrowing and its friction makes the noise, that is recognised as a sound. It has a tendency to duration
- sometimes they are called continuants.
There are 7 fricatives: f š s th‚ - voiceless (fortis)
v ž z th - voiced (lenis)
h
Distribution: in all positions, only [ž] occurs in initial position only in borrowed words (usually French)
Place of articulation: f,v - labiodentals ; š,ž - dentals, s,z - alveolars, th‚th - palatoalveolars, h - glottal
h - is treated as voiceless, but it takes the quality of the following vowel ( and its vocality). e.i.: ahead, honey, Between two voiced sounds it is voiced.
* an allophone of [h] exists in initial positi
Vloženo: 15.12.2009
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