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semantics:
- The study of meaning
- A component or level of linguistics of the same kind as phonetics or grammar.
- Semantics is at one “end” and phonetics as the other, with grammar somewhere in the middle.
history of the term semantics: introduced in a paper read to the American philological Association in 1894 entitled “Reflected meanings: a point in semantics.”
historical semantics: the study of the change of meaning in time. The term semantics was first used to refer to the development and change of meaning.
- Semantics: studies in the science of meaning: Breal;1900, one of the earliest books on linguistics as we understand it today. Here semantics treated as the “science” of meaning.
- The meaning of meaning: C.K.Ogden and I.A. Richards; 1923; one of the most famous books on semantics
- The problem of meaning in primitive languages: Malinowski; 1923; an appendix, which is itself a classic in the field
- semiotics (semiology): in current use to refer to the theory of signs, or of signaling systems, in general.
meaning: Ogden and Richards – no less than sixteen different meanings
- kinds of change of meaning (bloomfield)
- narrowingmeatfood
- wideningbirdnestling
- metaphor(based on similarity)bitterbiting
- metonymy (nearness in space of time)jawcheek
based on some inner logical relationship (věcná souvislost)
the kettle is boiling (you mean the water in the kettle)
- synecdoche (whole - part relation)The hired hands [workers] are not doing their jobs."
- hyperbole (stronger to weaker meaning)astoundstrike with thunder
- litotes (weaker to stronger meaning)killtorment
- degenerationknaveboy
- elevationknightboy
- If language is regarded as an information system, or more strictly as a communication system, it will associate a message (the meaning) with a set of signs (the sounds of language or the symbols of the written text. Ferdinand de Saussure referred to these as the signifier (significant) and the signified (signifié). He, unfortunately, used the term sign to refer to the association of these two, but some of his more recent followers have, more reasonably, used it for the signifier alone.
Signifier: a word in the language (kočka – pojem)
Signified: object in the world that “stands for”, “refers to”, “denotes” to sth. (kočka- zvíře)
- Saussure: language (langue) and speaking (parole)
- Langue = abstract system (grammar); Parole = concrete realization of this system
Chomsky: competence and performance
meaning versus use/semantics vs pragmatics/
sentence meaning vs utterance maning (Lyons, the most useful distinction)
- sentence meaning: directly related to the grammatical and lexical features of a sentence
- utterance meaning: includes all secondary aspects of meaning, especially those related to context
- taboo: a word that is used for something unpleasant is replaced by another and that too is again replaced later. (privy, W.C., lavatory, toilet, bathroom, etc., and more recently, loo.)
- comparative philology (historical linguistics)
- attempts both to reconstruct the history of languages and, via their history, to relate languages apparently coming from a common source or “ancestor”
- etymology: the discovery of earlier meanings of words, the discovery of their “true” meanings
- diachronic linguistics: Saussure; being concerned with language through time
- synchronic linguistics: Saussure; being concerned with language as it is, or as it was at a particular time.
- psycholinguistics: the relation between psychology and linguistics
- redundancy: parts of the message that can be removed without removing any information
- noise: anything at all that interferes with transmission
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Lexical semantics: sense relations
- predication:
John is a man = it is said of the individual John that he has the property of being a man.
- Symbols: M(a) – M= predicate (is a man), a = individual = ARGUMENT (John)
- More than one individual: John loves Mary – L(a,b) where L = predicate (loves) and a (John), b (Mary) = two arguments
- Arguments are ordered!(John loves Mary L(a,b) is not the same as Mary loves John L(b,a)
- The verb “to give” has three arguments: John gave Mary a book.
Entailment: relations that hold between sentences (propositions):
- If John is a bachelor, he is unmarried B(a) → U(a). The symbol → indicates entailment. B stands for bachelor, U for unmarried and the whole formula says that John is a bachelor entails John is unmarried.
Two-place predicates:
- Predicates with two arguments
- The relations between the arguments:
Symmetric – if it holds for the arguments in both directions (be married to, cousin) – říkala, že je to hloupost, že to je logický vztah (if John is married to Mary, Mary is married to John)
Transitive – the relation is transitive, if for three arguments x, y and z, the relation that holds both for x and y and for y and z, holds for x and z (if John is in front of Harry and Harry in front of Bill, John is also in front of Bill. (behind, above, below, north of, south of, inside…) do not hold for opposites
Reflexive – A relation is reflexive if it relates an argument to itself (equal, resemble) Four equals four. John resembles himself.
Hyponymy:
- Meaning inclusion, notion of inclusion in the sense that tulip and rose are included in flower, and lion and - - - - elephant in mammal (or perhaps animal)
- Inclusion is thus a matter of class membership.
- The upper term = superordinate/ hyperony
- The lower term = hyponym
- members of a class = co-hyponyms
- hyponymy involves entailment – This is a tulip entails This is a flower.
immediate hyponym – flower is an immediate hyponym of plant.
Synonymy:
- Sameness of meaning (not exactly the same)
- Native and foreign words (buy and purchase; world and universe); Native: often shorter and less learned
No real synonyms, no two words have exactly the same meaning, because of
- different dialects of the language (fall – US, autumn BR)
- words used in different styles, e.g. nasty smell = an obnoxious effluvium (very posh) or an ´orrible stink (colloquial)
- some words may be said to differ only in their emotive or evaluative meanings. The remainder of their meaning (the cognitive meaning) remains the same, e.g. politician vs. statesman, hide vs. conceal, liberty vs. freedom each implying approval or disapproval
- some words are collocationally restricted
- many words are close in meaning, or that their meanings overlap – a loose sense of synonymy
Antonymy:
- Oppositeness of meaning
- Antonyms = words that are opposite
Contrastive antonymy: they may be seen in terms of degrees of the quality involved; big/small
Grading: Saphir;
Explicitly graded:
- The comparative forms of the adjectives (those ending in –er or occurring with more), e.g. big – bigger, wide-wider…
- these comparative forms are preceded linguistically by the simple forms (formed from them by adding –er or more)
Implicitly graded:
Precede them logically in that wide, old and big can only be understood in terms of being wider, older, bigger than something – some norm or other.
Pair of antonyms can be:
Unmarked (nepřízvukový):
- Only this one form of the pair is used to ask about or describe the degree of the gradable quality.
- How high is it? How old are you? We never ask How young are you?
- Old, high, wide…
Marked (přízvukový):
- The marjed antonym of the pair is not used in this way.
- Young, low, narrow…
Contradictory antonymy = complementarity:
- Married/single; dead/alive; male/female
- The items are complementary to each other
- Exhibit incompatibility – something is wide is to say that it is not narrow; to say that someone is married is to - say that he is not single.
- Only two possibilities (two-term sets)
Conversness antonymy/ relational opposition:
- Pairs of words which exhibit the reversal of relationship between items (or argument)
- Buy/sell (if John sells to Fred, Fred buys from John); husband/wife (if Bill is Mary´s husband, Mary is Bill´s wife)
- Lend/ borrow, rent/ let, own/ belong to, give/ receive, fiancé/ fiancée, parent/ child, above/ below, in front of/ behind, etc.
- Terms in English not indicating sex: cousin (symmetric), parent, child, spouse, sibling…
Polysemy: mnohovýznamový
- The same word may have a set of different meanings, such a word is polysemic.
- Flight (passing through the air, power of flying, air journey, unit of the Air Force, volley, digression, series of steps…)
- Bank (banka, břeh), port (přístav, portské víno)
One entry in the dictionary
Homonymy:
- Several words with the same shape
- Mail (armour, post, halfpenny, payment, spot) – they are not shown as different meaning
- Separate entry in the dictionary for each of these homonyms
Homography:
- The words are spelt in the same way, but pronounced differently
- Lead (vodítko) /li:d/ and lead (olovo) /led/
Homophony:
- The words are spelt differently but pronounced in the same way
- Site and sight, rite and right
Relationships between meanings:
Metaphor:
- A word appears to have both a literal meaning and one or more transferred meanings
- Often parts of the body (hand, foot, face, leg, tongue, eye, etc.)
- Eye - part of the body, eye of a needle; foot of mountain
Semantic features/ meaning components:
- The total meaning of a word being seen in terms of a number of distinct elements or components of meaning
- The notion of component does not introduce a further kind of relation, rather it purports to offer a theoretical framework for handling all the relations we have been discussing
- It was noted that in Spanish, for instance, the sex of people involved is clearly marked ending –o for male and –a for female(tio = uncle, tia= aunt), English has no such markers
- Degrees of relationship involve: Linearity/ direct = for grandfather, father…; Colineal = for brother, uncle…(but with different generation); Ablineal = for cousin
Componential analysis: allows us to provide definitions for all these words in terms of a few components (male, female, non-adu
Vloženo: 24.04.2009
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